What is communalism? What are the causes for genesis and growth of communalism in India?

 Why is it in the news? 

1. Nagpur witnessed the outbreak of communal violence of mass on 17th March 2025. Members of right wing Hindu groups organised a protest in Nagpur’s Mahal area demanding the demolition of Aurangzeb Tomb at Khuldabad. They burnt an effigy of Aurangzeb wrapped in a green cloth. The rumour spread that the cloth bore Quranic verses. The misinformation was very much amplified by social media. 

2. Violence erupted. The protestors attacked police homes and vehicles. Over 60 vehicles were either torched or vandalised. More than 30 police personnels were injured. CCTV cameras were deliberately targeted by rioters. Curfew was imposed upon several areas of Nagpur. 

3. The release of the film Chhava in which Aurangzeb was depicted torturing and killing Sambhaji Maharaj, the great Maratha King triggered the immediate cause for communal riots in Nagpur. Police have taken 84 people under custody so far. It is reported that Nagpur is now returning to normalcy. 

What is communalism? 

1. It refers to the belief that people belonging to the same religious community have common political, economic and social interests, superseding the interests of other religious communities, thereby, fetching maximum benefits to the exclusion of other religious communities. Thus, communalism creates division and conflicts between different religious groups. 

Thus, communalism is a divisive ideology that gives priority to religious identity over national unity leading to religious polarisation, political manipulation to use religion for getting votes, outbreak of violence and riots, levelling minority Muslims as anti-national and majority Hindus as oppressors. It fails to separate religion from politics. Thus, it tries to conduct government on the basis of religious dogmas. In the extreme form communalism claims nationhood for the community concerned and seeks to raise it to a status of sovereign state. For example, majority Hindus clamour for Hindu Rashtra in India. 

There are three types of communalism in India. These are : 

• Assimilative communalism, whereby the majority community imposes its culture upon minorities. 

• Aggressive communalism, whereby majority Hindus assert its religious identity by resorting to violent methods like mob-lynching hate speeches targeting Muslims and other minority communities and reduction of political participation of minority Muslim community by not giving party tickets to stand in election. 

• Minority Separatism, whereby minority communities demand exclusive rights or autonomy or even independence. For example, Khalistani groups in Punjab demanded a separate homeland. Similarly, different separatist groups wanted independent J & K or its merging with Pakistan. 

What are the causes for genesis and growth of communalism in India?

1. Colonial legacy - It should be noted that during the 1857 War of independence, both Muslims and Hindus fought together. This unity raised concern to the British authorities and so they tried to crush Muslim zamindars, talukdars and Muslim princes from 1860 onwards till 1900. In this period, they pampered Hindus. But when Hindus became educated and started demanding more concessions from the British Government, the Britisher tilted towards Muslims. Lord Elphinstone, a Governor of Mumbai  wrote that divide and rule was the motto of the Roman Empire, it should be ours. Similarly, Sir John Wood wrote to Lord Elgin- “ We have maintained power by playing one part against the other and we must continue to do so.”  The Britishers provoked the Nawab of Dhaka to establish the Muslim league party in 1906 to safeguard Muslims politically.  

The Britishers adopted the policy of divide and rule by providing separate electorates for Muslim in 1909, which was further extended in 1919 Act by providing separate electorates for Christians, Europeans and Sikhs. The British Government tried to further extend a separate electorate to Dalit by communal award in 1932 but this divisive ploy was foiled by Gandhiji through the Poona Pact. 

2. The partition of India between India and Pakistan further entrenched Hindu Muslim hostility. About 10 lakhs Hindus and Muslims were killed. 60 lakhs Hindus had to be rehabilitated in India. One lakh women were raped. These incidents left a permanent scar between Hindus and Muslims.

3. The personal laws based on religion further perpetuated religious division in India. The Ayodhya dispute and demolition of Babri Masjid in 1992 further politicised religious disputes, thereby, caused tension between Hindus and Muslims.  

4.In independent India, the political exploitation of different religious denominations further accentuated the religious divide. While Congress was accused of minority appeasement, BJP was accused of playing Hindutva politics and majoritarianism. Hate speeches delivered by politicians during elections further leads to consolidation of votes of different religious groups for different parties. 

5. Socio-economic disparity - According to Sachar Committee Report 2006, Muslims are very much lagging behind in education, employment and political representation. There is acute unemployment and resulting frustration among Muslim youths who are easy prey to radicalisation by extremists groups. Because of the fear of the Hindu majority, Muslims live in segregated areas in cities. The ghettoization tendency among Muslims further reinforces complete segregation from Hindu majority. 

6. Fake news in social media often leads to sensationalism causing Hindu Muslim conflicts. 

7. Weak law enforcement and delayed justice are causes for frequent communal riots in India. 

8. Large scale conversion activities taking place among Hindus by Christian missionaries and Muslim theologians further fuel communal sentiments among Hindus. 

9. Subversion of secularism by a few political parties also encourages communalism. 

10. Hindutva philosophy also ignited communalism in India so much so that this philosophy brands both Muslims and Christians as foreigners, thereby, accentuating societal divisions. 

     

How to mitigate communalism in India? 

1. Strengthening secularism 

2. Equal treatment of all religions by the state

3. No conversion from one religion to another should be allowed in normal situations by missionaries and Muslim theologians. There must be a stoppage of proselytising activities.   

4. Promoting interfaith education and communal harmony in schools

5. Highlighting shared cultural heritage of India in the school syllabus

6. Banning political parties that promote religious hatred

7. Electoral reforms to discourage identity politics

8. Ensuring equitable development of all communities

9. Encouraging interactions among communities through cultural programmes

10. Strict enforcement of anti-communal violence laws

11. Speedy trial of cases relating to communal violence

12. A mechanism should be developed to counter fake news

13. Strict penalties for hate speech 

14. Setting up of peace committees in the riot torn areas to bring normalcy. 

Way Forward

1. Focus should be on inclusive growth of all religious denominations.

2. Encouragement to secular values among the younger generation.

3. Promotion of interfaith dialogue. 

4. Stress upon India’s diversity as a strength rather than a weakness.

5. Adequate political participation of minorities in proportion of their population.

Conclusion

1. Communalism is a cancer to the Indian body politic and a threat to national integration.

2. Combating communalism requires proactive policing, strong social institutions, inclusive growth, proportional representation of all religious communities and collective societal efforts.

3. It should be noted that both religious and linguistic diversities are not hindrances to national integration and a cause for the outbreak of communalism. Communalism thrives when religious differences are politicised by different political parties for garnering votes. 

4. Communalism and democracy cannot thrive together. Hence it is necessary to curb communalism in order to strengthen democracy in India. 

Is China the greatest threat to India ?

 Why is it in the news? 

1. While giving an interview to the American correspondent Lex Freidman, the Indian Prime Minister said that India and China were working to restore conditions to how they were before 2020. The incident along the border created significant tensions between our countries. He said that our cooperation was not just beneficial but also essential for global stability and prosperity. He said, “Since the 21st century is Asia’s century, we want India and China to compete in a healthy and natural way.” He said that when two neighbouring countries existed, occasional disagreements were bound to happen but our focus was to ensure that these differences did not turn into disputes. Instead of discord, dialogue could build a stable cooperative relationship that served the best interest in both the nations.   

Relation between India and China in the Past 

1. Both countries in the past had contributed to each other. There was no hostility between them in recorded history. The old record suggests that both countries together contributed 50% of the world's GDP. At one time, Buddhism was the most prominent religion of China. There had been trade relationships and people to people exchange between both countries since ancient times. Noted scholars like Fa-Hsien, Huen- Tsang and Itsing visited India at different times. 

2. When China was brought under communist regime by Mao Zedong in 1949, India was the first non-communist country to recognise it. India established diplomatic relations with China in 1950. It always insisted upon giving China a permanent seat in the security council of the UN, instead of the Kuomintang Government of Taiwan.  Jawaharlal Nehru believed that India-China detente could stabilise Asia and keep the superpowers at bay. In 1954, both countries signed the Panchsheel agreement which included respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; non-aggression; non-interference in each other’s internal affairs; equality and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existence. India conceded China’s suzerainty over Tibet and recognised it as an autonomous region of China. However, the bonhomie between the two countries ended in 1962 when China attacked India on the western and eastern front. It captured forcefully the Aksai Chin area of J & K. It entered NEFA (Arunachal Pradesh). However, within a month, it retreated unilaterally from the eastern front.   Critics are of the view that China wanted to assert its regional dominance in Asia. It wanted to humiliate India which had become unquestionably the leader of the third world countries. The war caused mistrust and apprehension of India towards China. India detonated nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998 contending that there was a perpetual threat of China. Moreover, China- Pakistan Axis has been a lurking danger over the sovereignty and territorial integrity of India. 

Areas of Conflict 

1. The former Defence Minister, George Fernandes declared that China, not Pakistan, was the biggest threat to India. He cited occupation of Aksai Chin, support to Pakistan by providing nuclear and military aid and infrastructure build up of China near the LAC. Similarly, former Chief Defence Staff, Bipin Rawat accused China as the biggest threat to India’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. He cited the gradual encroachment of China into Indian territory and Chinna-Pakistan collusion. Thus, he said while Pakistan is a chronic threat, China is the real long term challenge. Thus, the combination of Chinese Military power, economic influence and territorial ambition make it India’s most formidable long term adversary. The important areas of conflict between India and China are : 

• Border Disputes - China does not recognise the MacMohan line drawn between India and Tibet in 1914 Shimla Convention. 

• China had forcefully captured a 38000 sq km area called Aksai Chin in J & K in the Indo-China war in 1962. It constructed highways connecting its province Xinjiang to Tibet. 

• China claims the entire Arunachal Pradesh of India, calling it the part of South Tibet. 

• China has made infrastructure like railways, highways and air bases along LAC. 

• China is constructing the China-Pakistan economic corridor (CPEC) which passes through Pakistan occupied Kashmir, thereby violating India’s sovereignty. 

• China has also pursued the policy of strings of pearls whereby it has constructed and developed naval bases at ports like Hambantota (Sri Lanka), Chittagong (Bangladesh), Kyaukpyu (Myanmar), Gwadar (Pakistan), Djibouti (Horn of Africa) to encircle India. China has also invested in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) under belt and road initiative. It has also initiated debt trap diplomacy whereby in case of failure of debt repayments assets of borrowing countries are either purchased or pawned. These tactics of China in IOR have limited the scope of Indian diplomacy in these regions. 

• China has provided nuclear missile technology, JF-17 fighter jets to Pakistan and it seems that China wants to wage a proxy war with India. It should be noted that Pakistan is dependent upon China for its 70% military hardwares.  

• China has established its predominant power in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean by the deployment of nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers. The presence of the powerful Chinese navy is a constant threat to India’s sovereignty. 

• Military asymmetry between India and China is another threat. India spends $81 billion on its military, China spends $230 billion annually. The Chinese regular army consists of more than 20 lakhs against India’s 14 lakhs. Moreover, China has manufactured hypersonic missile systems and high grades of aircrafts like the Chengdu J-20 and J-36 stealth fighters.  

• Cyber and hybrid warfare threats - Chinese hacking groups target Indian defence, healthcare and IT sectors. They spread disinformation campaigns by manipulating Indian social media. 

• The bilateral trade between India and China in FY24 stood at 118.40 billion (GTRI).  China has once again become India’s top trading partner in FY24 surpassing the United States. China had a 15% share in India’s total imports. India imported goods worth 675.42 billion from the world including goods worth 101.74 billion from China. There is a widening trade deficit of $83 billion in 2023 with China. This is because of the impediments for most of India’s agricultural products, pharmaceuticals, IT/ITeS in the Chinese market. Thus, there is economic leverage to China vis-a-vis India.

What should India do to mitigate the threats of China?

1. Engagement in military level talks with Chinese to de-escalate tensions.

2. An effort should be made to demarcate the boundaries between India and China.

3. Deployment of Indian Army on vulnerable points so that Chinese incursions can be checked in time. 

4. India should focus upon indigenous production of goods and services so that its dependence upon Chinese imports is minimised. 

5. Since, Chinese economy is five times greater than that of India in nominal GDP and two and half times greater than India in PPP terms, India should make all efforts to increase its growth rate by investing in infrastructure, FDI, providing employment opportunities to youths and increased allocation in educational and healthcare sectors. Moreover, the demographic dividend is favourable to India so much so that it would continue till 2049 against China’s in 2031. Dependency load of China would further increase leading to the decrease in its economic growth. India can catch up to China after 2031 in economic growth and development. 

6. India should reinforce its alliance with Japan, Australia and the US on the one hand to minimise the preponderant influence of China in the Indo-Pacific region, it should strengthen its ties with Russia because India is highly dependent upon military hardwares. Moreover, looking into the close relationship between China and Russia, it is imperative to have strong ties with Russia to neutralise its close relationship with China. 

7. Looking into the huge investment in the Chinese military, India should also match the military expenditure in proportion to its size of the economy. 

8. India should upgrade its missile technology. It should develop hypersonic missiles to match China. It should further strengthen Mountainous corps in the Himalayan region. The 4000 km long borders between India and China should be further reinforced with latest technology and logistics so that Chinese could be tackled effectively and no incursion is allowed into the Indian territory. It should be noted that India has more experience of warfare in mountainous and hilly terrains than the Chinese army.  

Areas of reconciliation 

1. Both countries can make reconciliation by the resolution of conflict over border disputes. Buffer zone should be earmarked on the border of MacMohan line so that no untoward incident recur. There should be agreement on patrolling protocols, better communication between two governments at different levels to prevent further clashes. 

2. Multilateral cooperation - Both countries can strengthen BRICS, SCO and G-20. They can also pursue the policy of de dollarization in order to reduce the dependence upon the US dollar. They can also raise the restructuring of the World Bank and IMF where the developed countries have greater benefits.      

3. China should also stop the policy of proxy war against India through Pakistan. It should reduce giving military hardwares and advanced technology to Pakistan. Similarly, it should stop vetoing in the security council with regard to Pakistani sponsored terrorist activities in the Kashmir Valley. 

4. Both countries can cooperate in the field of artificial intelligence, semiconductors and cyber security. 

5. Both countries should promote cultural tourism and people to people exchanges. 

Conclusion

1. Trust deficit between the two countries must be removed through the continued dialogue. They should understand that disputes and wars are not solutions to their problems. Any escalation of tension between two countries would not be beneficial for Asian solidarity and world peace. 

2. Both countries are rising powers. Both countries have huge populations. Both need peace for expediting developmental works. 

3. However, India should keep its military, diplomatic, economic and nuclear preparedness vis-a-vis China so that it should not be caught napping like in 1962 Indo-China war. It must be noted that it is a deterrence that heralds peace between countries more effectively than anything else.   

What is Naxalism? What are the causes for the rise and growth of Naxalism in India? How to mitigate naxalism in India?

 Why is it in the news? 

At least 30 Naxalites were killed in two operations in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh on 20th March,2025. Thus, the overall number of Naxalites killed in Chhattisgarh this year went more than 100. In the encounter, one police jawan was also killed. The Union Home Minister applauded the success of security forces in Bastar. He also said that the country was going to be Naxal-free before 31st March,2026. The Chief Minister said that the government was fully committed to eradicate Naxalism from Chhattisgarh. 

What is Naxalism?

Naxalism in India is influenced by Maoist ideology. It aims at overthrowing the state and establishing a communist government in India by the use of violent armed forces. It started in 1967 in the village called Naxalbari in West Bengal when a group of radical communist leaders like Charu Mazumdar, Kanu Sanyal and Jangal Santhal raised the banner of Revolt against local landlords and government authorities. The movement rejected parliamentary politics , focused upon annihilation of class enemies like landlords, government officials and police. It adopted the tactics of Guerilla warfare to spark peasant revolution. It solicited urban intellectuals support, emphasised upon spontaneous uprisings. 

The movement spread to Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Eastern Maharashtra and undivided Andhra Pradesh. This belt is called red corridor , heavily forested areas and mineral rich covering central and eastern India. 

What is Maoism?

1. Maoism is a revolutionary communist ideology developed by Mao-Zedong, the communist party leader of China. The ideology is based upon Marxism, Leninism but adapts to emphasise rural peasantry as the driving force of revolution rather than urban proletariat favoured by Marxism. Maoism favours people's war, mobilisation of rural peasantry, encirclement of cities from the countryside, cutting of supply of food, water, milk, vegetables and thereby, dismantling state power. Mao was of the view that in a country like China which is dominated by feudal lords, agriculture and rural labour, people cannot wait for the urbanisation and rise of urban proletariat to spearhead revolution. Peasants and rural workers are capable of overthrowing the state power by armed struggle. Thus, he emphasised upon mass mobilisation in order to garner broad support of peasants and workers. He intensified the idea of class struggle whereby feudal lords, capitalists and imperialists were targeted to dismantle the old order. He stood for cultural revolution to transform culture and ideology, purging bourgeois influence   and to ward off revisionism. 

2. The ideology of Maoism has influenced worldwide, especially in third world countries. Naxalism in India, the shining path in Peru, communist parties in Nepal draw their ideologies from Maoism. The influence of the ideology of Maoism has waned after the end of the cold war. However, the ideology persists in those areas where acute inequality and land alienation exist. Heavy reliance of Maoism on violence and authoritarianism undermines its ultimate goal. Moreover, China itself shifted to a state controlled market economy post-Mao-Zedong. 

3. The influence and the affected districts dropped from 223 in 2008 to 90 districts in 2023. In spite of the declining influence of Naxalism in recent years, it is still the greatest threat to the internal security of India. 

Causes for the rise and growth of Naxalism in India? 

1. Land alienation of tribals -

2. Failure of land reforms 

3. Extreme Poverty in tribal belt

4. Tribal displacement on account of mining, construction of dams and establishment of industrial projects

5. Poor basic infrastructure in remote areas

6. Corruption and Absentee administration

7. High unemployment and youth disillusionment 

8. Excessive police brutality and fake encounters targeting innocent tribals

9. Naxalites projected themselves as the champion to safeguard Jal, Jangal, Zameen (Water, forest and Land)

10. Conflict between mining barons with locals in the tribal belt for the mining of minerals. 

11. Fragmented responses of state governments and uncoordinated approach between the centre and state governments in early stages of the growth of Naxalism. 

What are the variants of Naxalites in India? 

1. CPI (Marxist Leninist)  formed in 1969 by Charu Mazumdar, Kanu Sanyal and Jangal Santhal. The areas of operation were West Bengal, Bihar, parts of Eastern UP and Andhra Pradesh. 

2. CPI M L liberation founded in 1982 by Vinod Mishra. It aimed at limited electoral participation along with armed struggle for mobilisation. Area of operation - Bihar and Jharkhand. The party is active in mainstream politics, contesting elections in Bihar but it is criticised by hard liners as revisionists.  

3. CPI Maoists formed in 2004 by merging the people's war group and Maoist communist centre. It stood for rejection of parliamentary democracy, rural guerilla warfare and people’s war. It is the dominant force in the state of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha. This organisation was labelled as a terrorist organisation under UAPA. It runs a parallel government in tribal belts, uses IEDs to damage police force, extorts money from contractors and government officials. It indulges in illegal trade. 

4. Other splinter groups are CPI (ML) People’s Liberation, CPI (ML) New Democracy, CPI (ML) Jan Skakti. These splinter groups are mostly active in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. They are fragmented and have been weakened by infighting. As of now, their support base is very much minimum. 

What is Urban Naxalism ?

1. A group of intellectuals, students, writers and activists living in urban centres who are imbued with Maoists ideology. They act as fundraisers, spread propaganda and rationalise the Naxalite violences as consequences of the government highhandedness and exploitation of tribals by mining barons and government contractors. They are active in cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Hyderabad. 

2. This term was popularised by Government officials, security agencies and right wing politicians to describe individuals or groups in urban areas supporting the rural Naxalite insurgency. They are accused of advancing the Naxalite agenda in cities by mobilising urban population. 

3. Police alleged that urban Naxals organised an event in Pune that sparked violence in Bhima Koregaon in 2018. Many argue that this level of urban Naxal on academics, journalists and students was put to silent dissent by right wing politicians. It is also argued that this is the tactic to demonise opponents and intellectuals. 

Strategies of Naxalite in India.

1. Guerilla Warfare

2. Mobilisation of marginalised communities

3. Parallel governance

4. Extortion from contractors , government officials and mining barons

5. Engaged in illegal trade

6. Use of Propaganda and ideology 

7. Elimination of landlords, police and informer and government officials

8. Sabotage of roads, railways, communication lines to disrupt government access. 

9. Avoiding large confrontation with security forces. Instead it focuses upon small and high impact attacks. 

10. The use of improvised explosive devices and ambushing of police and security forces to cause heavy losses. 

11. Looting of weapons of security forces and importing high grade weapons from other terrorist groups operating in India and outside. 

Counter strategies used by security forces against Naxalism

1.The Government of India and various state governments employed a multifaceted approach to combat Naxalism by combining security operations, development initiatives and rehabilitation efforts. 

2. The Government has deployed central armed police forces like CRPF, BSF and specialised units like Cobra (Commando Battalion for Resolute Action) to conduct operations in Naxal affected areas along with state police. 

3. Area domination - the security forces have established camps in remote areas to disrupt Naxalite mobility and to instill confidence among people of the area. 

4. Collection of intelligence 

5. Counter IED measures

6. Government has initiated developmental works in Naxal affected areas by pushing infrastructure like construction of roads, bridges and telecom towers. 

7. Government also opened the residential schools in tribal belts, hospitals and started electrification. 

8. The government also imparts vocational training, provides financial aid and jobs to naxalites who laid on arms.

9. Government has also declared these Naxal groups as terrorist organisations and slapped UAPA against them. 

10. Government also organises health camps to engage with locals. 

The counter measures by the Government against Naxalites resulted in a 77% drop in violent incidents from 2009 to 2021. The affected districts also came down from 223 in 2008 to 90 in 2023. However, naxalites are still engaged in sabotaging infrastructure. Land disputes and tribal rights are important issues that are to be addressed in coming years. 

11. The Government opened the Bastariya Battalion for the recruitment of the local youths of Baster to win them away from Naxalite influences. 

How to mitigate Naxalism in India? 

Naxalism in India can be mitigated through the process of deployment of security forces, strengthening of intelligence network, area domination, speeding up of developmental works, resolution of land disputes, employment opportunities to tribal youths, empowering tribals by strengthening panchayat systems at grassroot levels, bridging the gap between the local administration and tribal communities. In addition, there is a need to have dialogue between the government officials and leaders of the tribal communities. 

Conclusion

Naxalism is the biggest threat to the internal security of India. Thousands of police officers and civilians were killed in the last 40 years. Although the influence of Naxalite organisations has weakened in recent years, they are still a force to reckon with. States like Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Maharashtra, Jharkhand and Bihar are still highly affected by Naxalite menace. A mix of action by security forces and developmental programmes in naxalite affected areas would go a long way to mitigate and eradicate naxalism in India.

Why have relations between India and Pakistan been so acrimonious since partition?

 

Why is it in the news? 

1. The Prime Minister of India, while giving an interview to the American podcastor Lex Friedman said that every noble attempt for peace with Pakistan was met with hostility and betrayal. 

2. India made several diplomatic attempts to normalise relations with Pakistan after partition but these overtures were met with hostility, military conflict, and cross border terrorism . 

3. Just after independence and partition, the tribal militia supported by the Pakistani army attacked J & K and captured Gilgit, Baltistan, Muzaffarabad and Mirpur. They were about to capture Srinagar. The Maharaja Hari Singh fled from Srinagar to Jammu. He signed the instrument of accession on 26th October 1947. The Indian army landed at Srinagar and flushed out the Pakistani infiltrators from two third areas of J & K. The war continued for one and half years. Ultimately, India showed gestures of goodwill by declaring ceasefire on 1st November 1949 at the behest of the UN. 

3. Financial Division - The total cash reserves of British India amounted to ₹400 crores. India was to retain ₹300 crores while Pakistan was to get ₹100 crores. India already paid ₹45 crore in August 1947. The remaining ₹55 crores were released in spite of raids by the Pakistani army supported by tribal militia into J & K.  

4. Nehru-Liaquat Pact - This Pact aimed at protecting the rights of minorities in both countries. But Pakistan did not implement it to preserve the rights of Hindu minorities.  The communal riots continued in Pakistan so much so that the Hindu population in West Pakistan got reduced from 21% to 3%. 

5. Indus river water treaty (1960) - India made a treaty with Pakistan with regard to the distribution of water of the Indus river and its tributaries. The World Bank brokered the treaty by which Pakistan was to get water from the Indus, the Chenab and Jhelum while India was to get water from the river Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. In spite of being a riparian state, India sacrificed in order to bring peace with Pakistan. But even this sacrifice did not appease Pakistan so much so that it often raises water issues at international fora alleging that India has been making dams over Chenab and Jhelum and diverting water to India. 

6. Tashkent Agreement (1966) - Pakistan attacked India in 1965 to grab J & K. It failed in its efforts. Rather the Indian army captured most of the territories of India. However, Soviet Russia brokered the peace and all the captured territories by India were handed over to Pakistan.

7. Shimla Agreement (1972) - After the 1971 war, a new country Bangladesh was born. 90,000 Pakistani Army surrendered before the Indian army. However, India returned all surrendered Pakistani army. It was also decided that disputes between India and Pakistan henceforth would be resolved bilaterally without the interference of the third power. Pakistan responded by supporting Khalistani movement in Punjab and insurgency in J & K in 1980s and 1990s. Knowing that it cannot win over India in conventional war, it started supporting and exporting terrorist groups in J & K. Pakistani ISI has been imparting training to terrorists in Pak Occupied Kashmir and exporting them into J & K to create disruptions and killing of innocent people. More than 30,000 people have been killed in J & K. Kashmiri Pandits were forced to leave the valley. 

8.  Lahore declaration (1999) - India wanted to have peaceful relations with Pakistan and the Indian Prime Minister led the delegation to Lahore. But within a few months, Pakistan clandestinely captured Kargil resulting in a full fledged war between India and Pakistan.   

9. Agra Summit (2001) - India invited Pakistani President Parvez Mussharaf for peace talks but it failed because of the differences over cross border terrorism. 

10. Parliament Attack on December 13th, 2001 - Indian Parliament was attacked by Pakistan based terror groups like Lashkar-e-taiba and Jaish-e-mohammad. All five terrorists were killed by security forces. Nine security personnels and one civilian also lost their lives. India mobilised its military along the Pakistan border. This continued 10 months long stand out. The Government enacted the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) to combat terrorism effectively. Afzal Guru was sentenced to death and hanged in 2013. He was found assisting terrorists. 

11. 26/11 Mumbai attacks (2008) - Pakistani sponsored terrorists attacked Mumbai from sea route causing deaths of more than 130 policemen and civilians. 

12. India again resumed diplomatic talks with Pakistan and started trade with Pakistan in 2016. Pakistan responded by attacks in Uri  (2016) and Pulwama (2019) killing 40 Crpf jawans. India responded by surgical strike at Balakot. 

13. In 2019, India revoked article 370 and bifurcated J & K by making two Union Territories of J & L and Ladakh. Pakistan opposed this move and stepped up cross border insurgency and terrorist activities. As of now, there is no trade relation between India and Pakistan. People-to people exchange is also very much restricted. Terrorist activities are still going on. However, its frequency has come down. 

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Why has the relation between India and Pakistan not normalised? 

1. Pakistan’s efforts to have parity with India - Since partition, it has been the objective of Pakistan to have strategic parity with India. That’s why, just after independence, it became aligned with the American bloc. It became a member of SEATO, SENTO and Baghdad Pact. While India pursued  the policy of non-alignment, keeping distance with both the blocs , Pakistan wanted to have strategic parity with India and so it became part of the American bloc. It got a huge amount of American aid and military equipment. Thus, between 1947 to 1965, the growth rate of Pakistan was double that of India. It is because of this urge that Pakistan detonated a nuclear bomb in 1998 in retaliation of the Indian detonation in the same year. 

2. Pakistan does not recognise the instrument of accession of J & K by Maharaja Hari Singh with the Indian Union. It contends that Maharaja signed over the instrument of accession under Indian pressure. He did not take into account the opinion of 75% Muslim majority subjects. Pakistan believes in a two nation theory and so Kashmir should have been a part of Pakistan. It raided J & K and captured one third of its territory. It is of the view that the control over J & K would give it strategic depth over India. Moreover, the Indus river and its tributaries flow through J & K and so its control would give it water security. 

3. Dominance of Military and ISI in Pakistani politics - Pakistani army virtually controls the foreign policy vis-a-vis India. It does not want normalisation between India and Pakistan on account of the fear that in case of normalised relations, the military expenditure would come down. So whenever there starts peace process between two countries, it is sabotaged by ISI.    

4. Political instability in Pakistan - Since partition, the political leadership in Pakistan has been weak. Unlike congress, the Muslim league did not participate in the freedom struggle. They always supported Britishers. They never went into Jail for a single day. They never opposed British policy. They never organised agitations against the Britishers. It has now become clear that Pakistan was created to subserve the interest of the Britishers in the Middle East and for the purpose of providing a military base and manpower. According to noted scholar Istiak Ahmad, Pakistan was created as a buffer state between India and the Soviet Union. Thus, the Muslim League leaders were not so much trained politically and administratively before independence. The weakness of the Pakistani leadership was taken advantage of by the military.  The army captured power thrice in 1958, 1977 and 1999 and imposed dictatorship. Thus, Pakistan was under the military dictatorship for more than 30 years after partition. The weak political leadership is not allowed by the all powerful military establishment to have a peaceful relationship with India.

5. Pakistan-China Axis - The relationship between Pakistan and India has been further complicated by the open support to Pakistan by China. China is a close ally of Pakistan. It has made Gwadar port at the mouth of Arabian Sea. It is constructing the China-Pakistan economic corridor. It vetoes in the security council on the question of terrorist activities of Pakistan into Kashmir Valley. It gives huge aid to Pakistan. The open support by China to Pakistan further complicated the relationship between India and Pakistan. In addition, it is also being supported by Turkey, OIC (Organisation of Islamic Country) and Malaysia on the Kashmir issue.  

Conclusion

1. The support extended by the US earlier and China later on prevented  a peaceful relation between India and Pakistan. The Kashmir issue has been the bone of contention. The Pakistani army virtually controls the civilian administration. It does not want a normalised relations with India lest its importance in the Pakistani politics would be weakened. Hence political restructuring of Pakistan is necessary for cordial relations between India and Pakistan.