Uniform Civil Code

 

Why is it in the news?

1. Uttarakhand officially implemented the uniform civil code for all residents of the state on 27th January, 2025 except scheduled tribes and natives who have migrated out of the state. Thus, Uttarakhand has become the first Indian State to implement the UCC after independence as mandated by the constitution of India under article 44. Goa already had a common civil code in India. Several BJP ruled states like Haryana, Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat have constituted committees to enforce uniform civil code in near future. 

2. The Act bans practices like Halala, Iddat and Talaq. It ensures that women are given equal rights in matters related to property and inheritance. 

3. According to the provision of UCC in Uttrakhand, all those people who have got married since March,26,2010, will have to be registered in the government portal within the six months. Marriages that have taken place after the implementation of the law should be registered within 60 days from the date of marriage. Similarly, live-in-relationship established before and after the implementation of UCC will have to be registered within one month from the date of implementation of the UCC.  

4. If the woman becomes pregnant during the live-in, then it is mandatory to inform the government within 30 days of the birth of the child. The UCC also mandates that a landlord cannot deny a house to any couple whose live-in registration is done. Thus, It mandates online registration of marriages, divorces and live-in relationships. A government portal has been formed for this purpose. People can access records, register complaints and also upload their will on the portal.  The government claims that the UCC will bring equality and harmony. It also hopes that the stream of equality emanating from Uttarakhand will irrigate the entire country in the future. 

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What is Uniform Civil Code?

1. UCC refers to replacing personal laws based on religious scriptures and customs with a common set of rules governing every citizen. These laws cover marriage, adoption, inheritance, divorce and maintenance governed by respective religious scriptures. 

2.  Under article 44 of our constitution Uniform Civil Code has been put under the directive principle of state policy. The provision states that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for all citizens throughout the territory of India. 

3. It is suggested that UCC would lead to equality, gender justice , promote national integration, eliminate complexities of different personal laws and modernise civil laws as per the needs of the contemporary society. 

4. Detractors give the following arguments against UCC : - 

• It would infringe the religious freedom guaranteed by the constitution of India under article 25, whereby every citizen is entitled to propagate, profess and practise his own religion. 

• India has cultural diversity. Different communities have different customs and traditions. Even among tribals, the customs and traditions of North Eastern Tribes are quite different from that of tribals living in Central India. 

• Different religious communities have resisted the implementation of UCC in India, alleging that it would compromise their religious freedom. 

• Political parties except, BJP, dither to implement UCC lest they get alienated from minorities. 

Difference between Uniform Civil Code and Common Civil Code

1. UCC stands for uniform laws for all citizens irrespective of their religious affiliations. It is secular and universal. It is rigid and uniform for all communities.

Common Civil Code on the other hand does not necessarily mandate complete uniformity. 

2. It can allow for some degree of flexibility. It allows diversities while seeking harmony. Thus, it gives special consideration to customs and traditions. 

The present position of UCC in the different countries of the world.

Most of the western countries like the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Australia have UCC. Islamic countries like Turkey, Tunisia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and other Central Asian Republics have adopted UCC. While other Muslim countries have still clung to Sharia laws.  

Historical Background 

The UCC was fairly discussed in the constituent assembly.  No unanimity among its members could be arrived at. Both Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Ambedkar, K M Munshi and women members were in favour of the binding implementation of UCC but the Muslim and Christian members vehemently protested against making UCC as enforceable by law.  Thus, a compromise was arrived at for want of consensus and it was put under Directive Principle of State Policy under article 44. 

Why has the uniform civil code not been implemented in India despite a constitutional mandate?

1. The fear of losing religious identity among minorities.

2. Political parties refrained from implementing UCC due to fear of backlash from minorities during the election.

3. Apprehension of social unrest by minorities.

4. Lack of consensus among majority and minority communities. 

5. Lack of awareness with regard to UCC.

6. Diversity and plurality of Indian society makes the UCC unfeasible. 

7. Encroachment upon the right to minorities under article 29 and 30 of our constitution.

The Way out 

UCC can be implemented by making consensus among all stakeholders. It requires gradual rather than drastic implementations. Moreover, citizens should be educated with regard to the benefits of the UCC. But the customs and traditions of tribal and other vulnerable communities must not be interfered with through the UCC.   

Why did Sultan Mohammad Tughlaq fail miserably as a ruler?

 

1. Sultan Mohammad Tughlaq was a widely read person. He was well- versed in History, Theology, Mathematics and Persian. No Sultan before and after him was so educated as he was. But he was impatient and acted in haste. He did not give enough time to his project to be implemented efficiently, with the result that most of his experiments/projects failed. These failures sapped the vitality of the Sultanate. The final nail in the coffin of the Sultanate was struck by Taimur Lang in 1398. Taimur looted and plundered Delhi, massacred its people and took away thousands of cattle, artisans, valuable goods with him to his capital,Samarkand. 

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2. The Sultan annexed the entire South India. But it could not be administered properly from Delhi for want of proper communication in those days. In 1327, he made Devgiri as his second capital to control South India. A road was built to connect Delhi with Devgiri, renamed Daulatabad. Trees were planted on either side of the road. Sarais or halting places were constructed every two miles (1 mile = 1.6 km).  Nobles, Sufi Saints and people from Delhi were exhorted to shift to Daulatabad. They were provided lands and residential places. But the experiment failed miserably. It came out that as South India could not be controlled from Delhi, so North India could not be controlled and administered from Daulatabad, a town situated 1500 km away from Delhi. Thus, the experiment was shelved in 1333, after a gap of six years. But, the experiment caused heavy casualties of people and loss of wealth. A large number of people died of exhaustion because the experiment was carried on in the summer season. Secondly, those nobles or landed gentry settled at Daulatabad got homesick. They did not like the surroundings of Daulatabad. Moreover, the locals resisted them. So, some of the nobles returned to Delhi while others perished enroute. Although the experiment failed miserably, it led to the commingling of Hindu and Islamic cultures.  Islam hitherto restricted to North India, penetrated into Deccan and South India. The exodus of muslim theologians, sufi saints, military officers, nobles and landed gentry to Deccan led to the establishment of Bahmani Kingdom in 1347. Secondly, the commingling of Persian and Hindavi gave rise to a new language called Urdu. While Hindavi provided sub structure (base), the Persian provided super structure (Persian Vocabulary) to Urdu. In later years, Urdu proliferated to North India. And it is now the lingua franca of Pakistan. While in the states of UP,Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi and Telangana, it is the additional official language. 

3. Introduction of token currency - The Sultan introduced token currency in the sultanate. Thus, the face value of a copper coin was put at par with a silver coin. In modern times, almost all countries have adopted token currency. But in those days it was very new for the people in the sultanate. It is suggested that the Sultan took this measure because there was paucity of silver metal. Earlier, the Chinese emperors and Kublai Khan had also experimented with token currency. But the token currency in India introduced by Mohammad Tughlaq failed miserably because the Sultanate did not take sufficient measures to check the counterfeiting of coins. The administration failed to stop the imitation of token currency. People started hoarding gold and silver and paying taxes in counterfeiting currency. This led to the decline of trade and commerce and the overall economy of the sultanate. The sultan was forced to withdraw token currency. He ordered the genuine token currency of copper to be exchanged by silver coins. This experiment further put a heavy burden upon the exchequer of the sultanate.

4. The sultan tried to curb the power and influence of Ulema who had controlled the religious and judiciary department. He ordered that the monopoly of Ulema must be dismantled and all those people who were meritorious should get access to the judiciary, religious and ecclesiastical department. This infuriated the Ulema, theologians and orthodox elements in the Sultanate and therefore, started lobbying against the Sultan. But when the sultanate witnessed a series of revolts in the second half of his reign, the sultan was forced to make compromises with the orthodox elements of the sultanate. He invited Giasuddin, a distant relative of Khalifa and bestowed upon him respect and huge gifts. Similarly, most of the Ulemas and their descendants were restored to their original positions in the judiciary, religious, educational and ecclesiastical department. 

5.Similarly, the Sultan expanded the base of nobility by recruiting not only foreign Muslims but also native Muslims. Hindus were also recruited in the nobility. Thus, instead of hereditary, the merit found utmost importance. The liberality of the Sultan was very much detested by the orthodox elements and foreign Muslims. The cohesiveness of the nobility was completely torn asunder. 

6.The Sultan embarked upon agrarian reforms in Doab. An agricultural department called Diwan-e-Kohi was established to help farmers with Taqavi loans, seeds and implements. But because of the sudden outbreak of famine in Doab, the agrarian reform failed miserably. Moreover, the land was not measured before fixing the land revenue as was done by Allauddin Khilji. The land revenue was fixed as high as half of the produce. The outcome was that most of the farmers abandoned farming and fled to the jungles. 

7. The Sultan recruited 3 lakh 70 thousand soldiers and paid them a salary of one year in advance. The purpose was to capture Khurasan in central Asia. But on account of the changing scenario in central Asia, the project was shelved. This caused a heavy economic burden on the exchequer. Similarly, the expedition to Qarajal, situated in the foothills of Himalayas, proved a disaster. Almost all 10,000 soldiers perished in the hilly terrain.

8. The Sultan failed to check on revolt one after another revolt in his vast sultanate. Thus, Bengal liberated itself from the sultanate. In South India, Harihar and Bukka established Vijay Nagar kingdom in 1336. In Deccan, Hasan Gangu, a foreign Muslim, established independent Bahamani Kingdom in 1347. In Rajputana, Hamir Dev declared independence and defeated the sultanate army at Sugoli in 1336. Thus, in the second half of his reign, the Sultan kept on quelling one revolt after another revolt and died at Thatta in 1351 while subduing the revolt in Sindh. 

9. To conclude, several historians like Elphinstone and  V A Smith accused Mohammad Tughlaq of insanity or a mixture of opposites but this is not true. Most of his experiments were ahead of his time. Moreover, they lacked the force of proper implementation. The Sultan was in haste and was hot headed. He left most of his experiments in the middle without going for a final conclusion. Moreover, he lacked a sense of proportion so much so that he could not discriminate between the serious and trivial crime and so awarded harsh punishment disproportionate to the gravity of the crime. The nobility, the Ulema, the regional warlords, the foreign Muslims were always in the lookout to undermine the position of Sultan. These were the reasons for the failure of Sultan Mohammad Tughlaq.  However, the credit goes to the Sultan that he valiantly fought against Mongols and defeated them. In spite of so many revolts, the sultanate was saved from crumbling. 

Achievements in Science and Technology in Ancient India

Why is it in the news?

1.The noted historian William Dalrymple wrote the “Golden Road : How Ancient India Transformed the World?”. The book was published earlier this year, which gives the complete idea as to how India was everything that happened in the ancient world right up to the early stages of the rise of Islam. 

2.According to him, India, not China, was at the heart of ancient commerce. It was the bristling maritime trade between India and the rest of the world which boosted international trade. That India was indeed a maritime power touching Egyptian ports to the West and Indonesia and the rest of SouthEast Asia to its East. The outcome of this association was the construction  of the largest Hindu Temple complex at Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist shrine in Indonesia. 

3. Through the ages scholars, kings, caliph, emperors across the world from China to Western and Central Asia admired India as the principal knowledge hub even after the advent of Islam. India’s rich mathematical and astronomical tradition continued to dazzle the world. The Chinese emperors gave shelter to Indian mathematicians, astronomers, and scholars in their courts. 

4.The Historian William Dalrymple, brought out how ancient India was as great and as dynamic civilisation as China was at a time when the west was hardly in reckoning. According to him, Indians made astonishing advances in science and technology in ancient India. 

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Achievements in Science and Technology in ancient India

1.Ancient Indians made three important contributions. These are the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notational system was adopted by the Arab who spread it to the western world. The decimal system was borrowed by the Chinese from Buddhist missionaries. Similarly, Indians invented Algebra which was acquired by Arabs and spread to the western Europe. Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya further contributed in the development of Algebra and trigonometry. 

2. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the 2nd century BC. It was considered a separate numeral. The Arabs learnt the use of zero and then spread it to Europe. 

3. Aryabhatt calculated the positions of the planets. He discovered the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses. He measured the circumference of the Earth. He said that the Earth rotates around the Sun rather than vice-versa. He wrote Aryabhatiya. 

4. In the book Brihat Samhita, Varahmihir said that the Moon rotated around the Earth and Earth rotated around the Sun. 

5. In the field of medicine, Sushruta and Charak were prominent surgeons and physicians respectively. While Sushruta in his book Sushruta Samhita gives detailed description about the method of operating cataract, stoned diseases and many implements to be used for surgery, the Charak Samhita discusses various types of diseases and prescribes medicines for their cure. 

6. The drainage system and town planning adopted by the Harappans clearly show that they had knowledge of measurement and geometry. Sulba Sutras provides early examples of geometry. It provides precise methods to construct altars. Aryabhatt formulated a method for calculating the area of a triangle which led to the origin of trigonometry. The ancient Indians developed temple building engineering. The marvellous Ellora temples and Kailashnath temple which have been carved out from the single rock is an example of extraordinary engineering feat. 

7. The Lokayat philosophy provided by the Charvak argued that what is not experienced by man through his sensory organ does not really exist. Thus, he repudiated the existence of god. Similarly, philosophy of Sankhya was propounded by Kapil Muni. According to him, the soul can get liberation only through real knowledge which can be acquired through perception, inference and hearing. 

8. Indians developed the art of dyeing, the lasting colour is found in the paintings of Ajanta. 

9.Indians developed great expertise in the art of making steel. The iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) did not rust even after the lapse of 1600 years. 

10.Kanad Rishi devises the atomic theory. He speculated about the existence of small indestructible particles much like an atom. He further held that atoms of the same substance combined with each other in a specific and synchronous manner  produced dviyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (Triatomic molecules). 

11. India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process. This led to the making of bronze alloy by the mixing of tin with zinc. 

Decline of Science and Technology in India 

The science and technology declined after the onset of Muslim rule in India. The Sultanate period and thereafter, the Mughal period saw the growth of orthodox elements in the society. The Muslim religious leaders like Ulema, Mullah and Maulavi increased religiosity in the society. Among Hindus, the Bhakti movement took its root. The religious leaders like Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, Vallabhacharya, Nanak, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai spread the Bhakti cult in India. Thus, the ecosystem of science and technology was relegated to the background. Religious orthodoxy took precedence over logic and scientific temper. Moreover, the progressive and learned Brahamanas were denied privileges like land grants during the Muslim rule and so their creativity was stifled. The status of education further deteriorated during the period. And thus, India lagged behind in science and technology in the mediaeval period.  It was only after the second half of the British rule that science and scientific studies were given importance. Thus, the scientists like J C Bose, C V Raman, Homi Jehangir Bhabha,  Srinivasa Ramanujan, Vikram Sarabhai, Satyendra Nath Bose and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar were produced in India who made marks in the field of science and technology. 

Powers and Functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha.

 

Why is it in the news ?

1.After the general election, there is a provision to elect a member of Lok Sabha as the Speaker from amongst its members. The election of the Speaker is scheduled on 26th June 2024. Before the election of the Speaker, Bhartruhari Mehtab was appointed as pro-tem speaker by the President of India.  His function would be to administer oath/ affirmation to the newly elected members of the 18th Lok Sabha and to conduct the election of new Speaker. 

2.Although there is no provision of the pro-tem Speaker in the constitution, the handbook on the working on Parliamentary affairs mentions appointment and swearing-in of pro-tem Speaker. By convention, it is the senior most MP who has served maximum terms in the Lok Sabha should be appointed as the pro-tem Speaker. Congress objected to the appointment of Mr. Mehtab who is the seven time member of Lok Sabha. While K. Suresh from the Congress is the eighth time member of Lok Sabha.  Congress alleges that the convention of appointing MP with maximum terms in Lok Sabha has been thus broken. 

Election of the Speaker - 

1.According to article 93, Lok Sabha chooses Speaker and Deputy Speaker from among its members. All the Speakers in the independent India have been elected unopposed. 

2.The Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha by simple majority. He can be removed by the effective majority of members of the Lok Sabha, present and voting. This means that according to article 92 of the constitution, the Speaker can be removed by an effective majority +1. Effective majority means total strength minus vacancies. For example, if the Lok Sabha has a total strength of 550 members and if there are 7 vacancies, the effective strength would be 543 members. In order to remove the Speaker 271+1 = 272 members must vote against him. But prior to moving the resolution for the removal of the Speaker, a 14 days advance notice must be issued to him to this effect. Normally, a ruling party member is elected as Speaker. But during the period of coalition government, a member from other parties can also be elected as the Speaker. 

3.The Speaker can also be removed on being disqualified from being a Lok Sabha member under section 7 and 8 of the Representation of People’s Act, 1951. 

4.He can also tender his resignation on his own to the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

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Power and Functions of the Speaker-

1.He enforces discipline and decorum in the House. 

2.He decides the agenda for Parliamentary meetings.

3.He permits motions such as adjournments, no confidence and censure. 

4.He ensures quorum (the presence of 1/10th members of the House) of the House. If quorum is not available, he adjourns the House.

5.He has the power to punish members who indulge in unruly behaviours. 

6.He constitutes several committees like business advisory committee, rules committee and general purpose committee and these committees work under his supervision. 

7.He is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its committees and members. It is his sole privilege to refer a question of the breach of privilege to the Committee of Privilege for proper inquiry and report. 

8.The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha Secretariat. He manages the administrative and security arrangements of the Parliament complex. 

9. He is the sole authority to decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. 

10.In case of deadlock between two Houses in respect of ordinary bills, he is empowered to preside over the joint sitting of Parliament under article 108 of our constitution. 

11.In the case of Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachilhu, 1993, the Supreme Court of India held that the decision of the presiding officer is not final and is subject to judicial review on the basis of malafide and perversity. 

12.In Nabam Rabia vs Deputy Speaker case,2016, the Supreme Court of India held that the Speaker will be disabled from deciding disqualification petition under anti defection law, if notice for his removal is pending. 

13. Similarly, in 2023, the Supreme Court in Subhash Desai vs Principal Secretary, Governor of Maharashtra case, 2023, directed the Maharashtra assembly Speaker to set a timeline for the disqualification of the MLAs. 

14. Similarly, in 1994, the Supreme Court of India held that a majority can be tested only on the floor of assembly and not otherwise. 

Speakers of Lok Sabha 1.G V Mavlankar - 15 May 1952 to 27th February 1956. 2.M A Ayyangar - 8th March 1956 to 10th May 1957, 11th May 1957 to 16th April 1962. 3.Sardar Hukam Singh - 17th April 1962 to 16th March 1967 4.Neelam Sanjiv Reddy - 17th March 1967 to 19th  July 1969 5.Gurdayal Singh Dhillon - 8th August 1969 to 19th March 1971, 22nd March 1971 to 1st December 1975. 6.Baliram Bhagat - 15th January 1976 to 25th March 1977. 7.Neelam Sanjiva Reddy - 26th March 1977 to 13th July 1977. 8. K S Hegde - 21st July 1977 to 21st January 1980. 9.Balram Jakhar - 22nd January 1980 to 15th January 1985, 16th January 1985 to 18th December 1989. 10.Ravi Rai - 19th December 1989 to 9th July 1991. 11.Shivraj Patil - 10th July 1991 to 22nd May 1996. 12.P A Sangma - 23rd May 1996 to 23rd March 1998. 13.GMC Balayogi - 18th March 1998 to 19th October 1999, 22nd October 1999 to 3rd March 2002. 14.Manohar Joshi - 10th May 2002 to 2nd June 2004. 15.Somnath Chatterji - 4th June 2004 to 30th May 2009.  16. Mira Kumar - 30th May 2009 to 4th June 2014. 17. Sumitra Mahajan - 6th June 2014 to 16th June 2019. 18.Om Birla - 18th June 2019 to till date.

Important issues associated with the office of the Speaker  -

1.It is alleged that the Speaker favours his party men in Lok Sabha. 

2.He misuses discretionary powers while deciding money bills and political defections.

3.He is also criticised for restricting debates and discussions to favour the ruling party. 

4.He is also charged with putting party interest above national interest. 

5.He is also accused of adopting the tactics of gerrymandering to favour  the ruling party by putting bills on vote without discussion in the Parliament. 

6.He is also accused of putting a bill on vote without sending it to the select committee for proper discussion and deliberation by the opposition parties. For example, three farm laws were passed by the Lok Sabha in hurry and when the farmers agitated for one year long, the Government had to withdraw the bill. 

The Independence and impartiality of the Speaker -

1.Our constitution has secured the independence and impartiality of the Speaker by giving him a security of tenure. This means that the resolution for his removal can be moved in the Lok Sabha only after the support of 50 members and a 14 days advance notice to this effect. 

2.Secondly, his salaries and allowances are charged upon the consolidated fund of India and are therefore, non votable in the Parliament. 

3.His powers to regulate the procedure of conducting business in the Lok Sabha cannot be subject to judicial review. 

4.He cannot vote in the Lok Sabha but in case of tie, he has the right to cast his vote. 

5.In the order of precedence, he is placed at the sixth rank along with the chief justice of India and is thus above cabinet ministers except the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister.

Way Forward

1.The Speaker is a bridge between the government and the opposition. He is duty bound to uphold democratic process by ensuring adequate space both to the ruling party and the opposition parties. Once elected as the Speaker, he should resign his parent party and should work as neutral referee in the House like the Speaker of the House of the commons in Britain. In matters relating to disqualification of a member from the House under the anti-defection law (under tenth schedule) and in deciding a particular bill as a money bill, he should show non- partisanship. 

2.It is his primary duty that bills introduced by the Government must be adequately discussed in the House so that there should not be any lacunae left. And therefore, the bills should be referred to the select committee for proper deliberation. But this trend has been reversed in the previous Lok Sabha. The numbers of referred bills to select committees have declined from 71% during 2009-14 to 16% during 2019-24. 

3.The Speaker should also refrain from suspending large scale MPs. In the 17th Lok Sabha, the Speaker suspended more than 150 MPs. This is not a good sign of healthy democracy. After all, democracy is a government of deliberations and discussions. 

Conclusion

1.Parliamentary debates and deliberations are guided by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

2.He should set the highest standard in public life by working in a non-partisan way. 

3. Since he is one of the pillars of parliamentary democracy in India, he should be above party politics and should strengthen the democratic process in India.  

Social Changes during the British Period (1757 - 1947)

 

A colonial economy

1. British rule converted India into a colonial economy.

2. The Indian economy was subordinated to the interest of its mother country, Britain.

3. British rule not only changed the political master at the top but also changed the substructure of the Indian economy like the village self sufficient economy. 

4. Britishers never became an integral part of Indian life. They always remained foreigners and syphoned off huge amounts of money from India.

Artisans and craftsmen were destroyed

1. Because of one way free trade in India after 1813, Indian manufactured goods could not compete with the goods produced on a mass scale by steam operated machines

2. Cotton weaving and spinning industries of India were hard hit.

3. Officers of East India company compelled artisans to sell the goods below the market price and hired their services below the prevailing wages. This led to the abandonment of the hereditary professions by a large number of artisans and craftsmen and they overcrowded into agriculture. 

4. Towns and cities like Dhaka, Surat, Murshidabad, Patna declined. 

5. The population dependent on agriculture increased from 63.7% to 70% between 1901-1941.

Peasants became poorer 

1. Because of the Izaredari system introduced by Lord Clive and Warren Hastings , agricultural lands were sold to the highest bidders. This led to the uprooting of old zamindars because they fell into arrears.  Their lands were confiscated and sold to the highest bidders like merchants and traders or moneylenders. Permanent settlement in Bengal presidency introduced by Lord Cornawalis fixed the land revenue to be paid by the revenue farmers (zamindars) to the British Government in perpetuity. However, revenue farmers could raise the rent to be paid by the peasants. Thus, peasantry were compelled to be at the mercy of zamindars.  In the Ryotwari system in Madras and Bombay presidency, the high revenue demand deprived most of the peasants from their lands and they fell into debt trap. Similar situation was obtained in Agra, Awadh and Punjab where Mahalwari system was introduced. Because of the excessive demands of land revenue by the British Government, most of the lands of peasants were confiscated and were sold to merchants, traders, money lenders or contractors. The condition of peasantry throughout the length and breadth of India deteriorated during the British rule.  

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Rise of Money lenders

1. Because of the land revenue policy of the Britishers and new legal system, a class of money lenders arose in India.

2. These money lenders could seize the lands of peasants. If they fail in arrears.

3. In 1911, the total rural debt was estimated at Rs. 300 crores but by 1937, it amounted to Rs. 1800 crores.

4.  Most of the land in Deccan were captured by money lenders 

5. That’s why during the period of 1857 revolt the target of attack of peasants was always on money lenders. 

Rise of absentee landlordism in rural areas 

1. Because of the land revenue policy of the Britishers, the old zamindari states were utterly ruined and were forced to sell their zamindari rights in Bengal presidency.

2. By 1815, half of the landed property in Bengal had been transferred from old zamindars to new zamindars who lived in town, giving rise to absentee landlordism in India.

3. These landlords became the chief political supporters of the Britishers and opposed the rising national movement.

Rise of Intermediaries 

1. The new landlords found it convenient to sublet their rights to collect rent to other eager people on profitable terms.

2. As the rent of land increased, the number of intermediaries also increased and sometimes it went up as high as 50.

3. The condition of tenants became pitiable because they had to bear the brunt of exorbitant rents. 

Rise of Indian Capitalists

1. Under the impact of the industrial revolution, jute and textile industries were founded by Indians.

2. By 1879, there were 56 textile mills employing 43000 workers.

3. By 1882, there were 20 jute mills. 

4. Sugar mills, woollen textiles, iron steel works, cement, paper, matches, glass industries developed during the 1930s .

5. However, most of the modern Indian industries were  owned or controlled by British capitals.

6. Foreign capital easily overwhelmed Indian capital on many of the Indian Industries.

7. Indian owned industries had a very stunted growth. Focus was more on consumer industries rather than basic industries

8. Although Indian capitalists formed a small part of the Indian population, they represented new technology, a new system of economic organisations, new social relations and an all India outlook.

Rise of modern working class

1. Because of the Industrialisation of India in the second half of the 20th century, a new working class arose in India.

2. By 1905, there were 206 cotton mills employing 1,96,000 workers. Similarly, in jute industries 1,15,000 workers were employed by 1901. The coal mining industry employed nearly 1,00,000 of workers in 1906.  

3. There were 2.3 million workers employed in 1951.

4. The condition of the workers was very pitiable. There were no housing facilities available for them. There was no fixation of work hours. 

5. The British government introduced the first Indian factory act in 1881, fixing nine working hours for children between 7 years to 12 years. 

6. The second factory act 1891, gave a weekly holiday to all workers. Women were not to work more than 11 hours per day and for children it was reduced to 7 hours. 

The policy of divide and rule Growth of communalism in India

1. The unity of Hindu and Muslims during the 1857 revolt scared Britishers. So, they started the policy of divide and rule.

2. First of all they confiscated lands of Muslim zamindars and distributed those lands to Hindu zamindars and peasants. 

3. Educated Hindus were preferred in government jobs. Muslims were neglected.

4. But after 1890, Britishers reversed their policy when they saw that Hindus are demanding Indianization of government jobs, representation in assemblies.

5. Britishers helped in the establishment of Muslim league in 1906 to safeguard the exclusive interest of Muslims.

6. In the 1909 act, Muslims were given separate electorates and thereafter in 1919 act, Christians, Europeans, Sikhs were given separate electorates. 

7. The separate electorate to different communities was meant to destroy the rising Indian nationalism in India.

Hostility to educated Indians

1. The British established three universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

2. The British appreciated the educated Indians who did not participate in the 1857 revolt. But British officials now became totally against it after 1890 when these educated Indians demanded more and more share in the governance. 

Social reforms

1. The British abolished sati system, permitted widow remarriage, banned infanticide, raised marriageable age of girls. 

2. But after 1857, the Britishers abandoned social reform, fearing that any further social reform may create a reaction of people against the Britishers.

Racial Antagonism 

1. The British always maintained social distance from Indians and openly asserted the doctrine of racial supremacy.

Weakening of caste system and emancipation of women

1. Because of the social reforms by Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Dayanand Saraswati, Self respect movement in South India, rigidity of caste weakened.

2.  Women participated in large numbers in the national movement launched by Gandhi ji.

3. Education among women further strengthened their position in society

Conclusion

1. Every class and every section of Indian society gradually discovered that its interests were suffering in the hands of foreign rulers.

2. Peasants, artisans and craftsmen, educated Indians, the rising Indian capitalists and workers felt that the British rule was not good for them and for India.

3. The exploitative British domination gave rise to Indian nationalism. 

4. Only zamindars, landlords and the princes supported British imperialism. Even a section of them joined the national movement. 

5. The British rule for 200 years in India affected almost all classes of India. The Britishers took away $44 trillion from India in its 200  years rule.

6. Thus, British rule gave rise to new classes of absentee zamindars, moneylenders and princes who were staunch supporters of British Raj. On the other hand, a new capitalist class, industrial workers and educated middle class arose in India. They spread nationalist ideas and were completely opposed to communalism.