Powers and Functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha.

 

Why is it in the news ?

1.After the general election, there is a provision to elect a member of Lok Sabha as the Speaker from amongst its members. The election of the Speaker is scheduled on 26th June 2024. Before the election of the Speaker, Bhartruhari Mehtab was appointed as pro-tem speaker by the President of India.  His function would be to administer oath/ affirmation to the newly elected members of the 18th Lok Sabha and to conduct the election of new Speaker. 

2.Although there is no provision of the pro-tem Speaker in the constitution, the handbook on the working on Parliamentary affairs mentions appointment and swearing-in of pro-tem Speaker. By convention, it is the senior most MP who has served maximum terms in the Lok Sabha should be appointed as the pro-tem Speaker. Congress objected to the appointment of Mr. Mehtab who is the seven time member of Lok Sabha. While K. Suresh from the Congress is the eighth time member of Lok Sabha.  Congress alleges that the convention of appointing MP with maximum terms in Lok Sabha has been thus broken. 

Election of the Speaker - 

1.According to article 93, Lok Sabha chooses Speaker and Deputy Speaker from among its members. All the Speakers in the independent India have been elected unopposed. 

2.The Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha by simple majority. He can be removed by the effective majority of members of the Lok Sabha, present and voting. This means that according to article 92 of the constitution, the Speaker can be removed by an effective majority +1. Effective majority means total strength minus vacancies. For example, if the Lok Sabha has a total strength of 550 members and if there are 7 vacancies, the effective strength would be 543 members. In order to remove the Speaker 271+1 = 272 members must vote against him. But prior to moving the resolution for the removal of the Speaker, a 14 days advance notice must be issued to him to this effect. Normally, a ruling party member is elected as Speaker. But during the period of coalition government, a member from other parties can also be elected as the Speaker. 

3.The Speaker can also be removed on being disqualified from being a Lok Sabha member under section 7 and 8 of the Representation of People’s Act, 1951. 

4.He can also tender his resignation on his own to the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

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Power and Functions of the Speaker-

1.He enforces discipline and decorum in the House. 

2.He decides the agenda for Parliamentary meetings.

3.He permits motions such as adjournments, no confidence and censure. 

4.He ensures quorum (the presence of 1/10th members of the House) of the House. If quorum is not available, he adjourns the House.

5.He has the power to punish members who indulge in unruly behaviours. 

6.He constitutes several committees like business advisory committee, rules committee and general purpose committee and these committees work under his supervision. 

7.He is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its committees and members. It is his sole privilege to refer a question of the breach of privilege to the Committee of Privilege for proper inquiry and report. 

8.The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha Secretariat. He manages the administrative and security arrangements of the Parliament complex. 

9. He is the sole authority to decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. 

10.In case of deadlock between two Houses in respect of ordinary bills, he is empowered to preside over the joint sitting of Parliament under article 108 of our constitution. 

11.In the case of Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachilhu, 1993, the Supreme Court of India held that the decision of the presiding officer is not final and is subject to judicial review on the basis of malafide and perversity. 

12.In Nabam Rabia vs Deputy Speaker case,2016, the Supreme Court of India held that the Speaker will be disabled from deciding disqualification petition under anti defection law, if notice for his removal is pending. 

13. Similarly, in 2023, the Supreme Court in Subhash Desai vs Principal Secretary, Governor of Maharashtra case, 2023, directed the Maharashtra assembly Speaker to set a timeline for the disqualification of the MLAs. 

14. Similarly, in 1994, the Supreme Court of India held that a majority can be tested only on the floor of assembly and not otherwise. 

Speakers of Lok Sabha 1.G V Mavlankar - 15 May 1952 to 27th February 1956. 2.M A Ayyangar - 8th March 1956 to 10th May 1957, 11th May 1957 to 16th April 1962. 3.Sardar Hukam Singh - 17th April 1962 to 16th March 1967 4.Neelam Sanjiv Reddy - 17th March 1967 to 19th  July 1969 5.Gurdayal Singh Dhillon - 8th August 1969 to 19th March 1971, 22nd March 1971 to 1st December 1975. 6.Baliram Bhagat - 15th January 1976 to 25th March 1977. 7.Neelam Sanjiva Reddy - 26th March 1977 to 13th July 1977. 8. K S Hegde - 21st July 1977 to 21st January 1980. 9.Balram Jakhar - 22nd January 1980 to 15th January 1985, 16th January 1985 to 18th December 1989. 10.Ravi Rai - 19th December 1989 to 9th July 1991. 11.Shivraj Patil - 10th July 1991 to 22nd May 1996. 12.P A Sangma - 23rd May 1996 to 23rd March 1998. 13.GMC Balayogi - 18th March 1998 to 19th October 1999, 22nd October 1999 to 3rd March 2002. 14.Manohar Joshi - 10th May 2002 to 2nd June 2004. 15.Somnath Chatterji - 4th June 2004 to 30th May 2009.  16. Mira Kumar - 30th May 2009 to 4th June 2014. 17. Sumitra Mahajan - 6th June 2014 to 16th June 2019. 18.Om Birla - 18th June 2019 to till date.

Important issues associated with the office of the Speaker  -

1.It is alleged that the Speaker favours his party men in Lok Sabha. 

2.He misuses discretionary powers while deciding money bills and political defections.

3.He is also criticised for restricting debates and discussions to favour the ruling party. 

4.He is also charged with putting party interest above national interest. 

5.He is also accused of adopting the tactics of gerrymandering to favour  the ruling party by putting bills on vote without discussion in the Parliament. 

6.He is also accused of putting a bill on vote without sending it to the select committee for proper discussion and deliberation by the opposition parties. For example, three farm laws were passed by the Lok Sabha in hurry and when the farmers agitated for one year long, the Government had to withdraw the bill. 

The Independence and impartiality of the Speaker -

1.Our constitution has secured the independence and impartiality of the Speaker by giving him a security of tenure. This means that the resolution for his removal can be moved in the Lok Sabha only after the support of 50 members and a 14 days advance notice to this effect. 

2.Secondly, his salaries and allowances are charged upon the consolidated fund of India and are therefore, non votable in the Parliament. 

3.His powers to regulate the procedure of conducting business in the Lok Sabha cannot be subject to judicial review. 

4.He cannot vote in the Lok Sabha but in case of tie, he has the right to cast his vote. 

5.In the order of precedence, he is placed at the sixth rank along with the chief justice of India and is thus above cabinet ministers except the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister.

Way Forward

1.The Speaker is a bridge between the government and the opposition. He is duty bound to uphold democratic process by ensuring adequate space both to the ruling party and the opposition parties. Once elected as the Speaker, he should resign his parent party and should work as neutral referee in the House like the Speaker of the House of the commons in Britain. In matters relating to disqualification of a member from the House under the anti-defection law (under tenth schedule) and in deciding a particular bill as a money bill, he should show non- partisanship. 

2.It is his primary duty that bills introduced by the Government must be adequately discussed in the House so that there should not be any lacunae left. And therefore, the bills should be referred to the select committee for proper deliberation. But this trend has been reversed in the previous Lok Sabha. The numbers of referred bills to select committees have declined from 71% during 2009-14 to 16% during 2019-24. 

3.The Speaker should also refrain from suspending large scale MPs. In the 17th Lok Sabha, the Speaker suspended more than 150 MPs. This is not a good sign of healthy democracy. After all, democracy is a government of deliberations and discussions. 

Conclusion

1.Parliamentary debates and deliberations are guided by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

2.He should set the highest standard in public life by working in a non-partisan way. 

3. Since he is one of the pillars of parliamentary democracy in India, he should be above party politics and should strengthen the democratic process in India.  

Social Changes during the British Period (1757 - 1947)

 

A colonial economy

1. British rule converted India into a colonial economy.

2. The Indian economy was subordinated to the interest of its mother country, Britain.

3. British rule not only changed the political master at the top but also changed the substructure of the Indian economy like the village self sufficient economy. 

4. Britishers never became an integral part of Indian life. They always remained foreigners and syphoned off huge amounts of money from India.

Artisans and craftsmen were destroyed

1. Because of one way free trade in India after 1813, Indian manufactured goods could not compete with the goods produced on a mass scale by steam operated machines

2. Cotton weaving and spinning industries of India were hard hit.

3. Officers of East India company compelled artisans to sell the goods below the market price and hired their services below the prevailing wages. This led to the abandonment of the hereditary professions by a large number of artisans and craftsmen and they overcrowded into agriculture. 

4. Towns and cities like Dhaka, Surat, Murshidabad, Patna declined. 

5. The population dependent on agriculture increased from 63.7% to 70% between 1901-1941.

Peasants became poorer 

1. Because of the Izaredari system introduced by Lord Clive and Warren Hastings , agricultural lands were sold to the highest bidders. This led to the uprooting of old zamindars because they fell into arrears.  Their lands were confiscated and sold to the highest bidders like merchants and traders or moneylenders. Permanent settlement in Bengal presidency introduced by Lord Cornawalis fixed the land revenue to be paid by the revenue farmers (zamindars) to the British Government in perpetuity. However, revenue farmers could raise the rent to be paid by the peasants. Thus, peasantry were compelled to be at the mercy of zamindars.  In the Ryotwari system in Madras and Bombay presidency, the high revenue demand deprived most of the peasants from their lands and they fell into debt trap. Similar situation was obtained in Agra, Awadh and Punjab where Mahalwari system was introduced. Because of the excessive demands of land revenue by the British Government, most of the lands of peasants were confiscated and were sold to merchants, traders, money lenders or contractors. The condition of peasantry throughout the length and breadth of India deteriorated during the British rule.  

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Rise of Money lenders

1. Because of the land revenue policy of the Britishers and new legal system, a class of money lenders arose in India.

2. These money lenders could seize the lands of peasants. If they fail in arrears.

3. In 1911, the total rural debt was estimated at Rs. 300 crores but by 1937, it amounted to Rs. 1800 crores.

4.  Most of the land in Deccan were captured by money lenders 

5. That’s why during the period of 1857 revolt the target of attack of peasants was always on money lenders. 

Rise of absentee landlordism in rural areas 

1. Because of the land revenue policy of the Britishers, the old zamindari states were utterly ruined and were forced to sell their zamindari rights in Bengal presidency.

2. By 1815, half of the landed property in Bengal had been transferred from old zamindars to new zamindars who lived in town, giving rise to absentee landlordism in India.

3. These landlords became the chief political supporters of the Britishers and opposed the rising national movement.

Rise of Intermediaries 

1. The new landlords found it convenient to sublet their rights to collect rent to other eager people on profitable terms.

2. As the rent of land increased, the number of intermediaries also increased and sometimes it went up as high as 50.

3. The condition of tenants became pitiable because they had to bear the brunt of exorbitant rents. 

Rise of Indian Capitalists

1. Under the impact of the industrial revolution, jute and textile industries were founded by Indians.

2. By 1879, there were 56 textile mills employing 43000 workers.

3. By 1882, there were 20 jute mills. 

4. Sugar mills, woollen textiles, iron steel works, cement, paper, matches, glass industries developed during the 1930s .

5. However, most of the modern Indian industries were  owned or controlled by British capitals.

6. Foreign capital easily overwhelmed Indian capital on many of the Indian Industries.

7. Indian owned industries had a very stunted growth. Focus was more on consumer industries rather than basic industries

8. Although Indian capitalists formed a small part of the Indian population, they represented new technology, a new system of economic organisations, new social relations and an all India outlook.

Rise of modern working class

1. Because of the Industrialisation of India in the second half of the 20th century, a new working class arose in India.

2. By 1905, there were 206 cotton mills employing 1,96,000 workers. Similarly, in jute industries 1,15,000 workers were employed by 1901. The coal mining industry employed nearly 1,00,000 of workers in 1906.  

3. There were 2.3 million workers employed in 1951.

4. The condition of the workers was very pitiable. There were no housing facilities available for them. There was no fixation of work hours. 

5. The British government introduced the first Indian factory act in 1881, fixing nine working hours for children between 7 years to 12 years. 

6. The second factory act 1891, gave a weekly holiday to all workers. Women were not to work more than 11 hours per day and for children it was reduced to 7 hours. 

The policy of divide and rule Growth of communalism in India

1. The unity of Hindu and Muslims during the 1857 revolt scared Britishers. So, they started the policy of divide and rule.

2. First of all they confiscated lands of Muslim zamindars and distributed those lands to Hindu zamindars and peasants. 

3. Educated Hindus were preferred in government jobs. Muslims were neglected.

4. But after 1890, Britishers reversed their policy when they saw that Hindus are demanding Indianization of government jobs, representation in assemblies.

5. Britishers helped in the establishment of Muslim league in 1906 to safeguard the exclusive interest of Muslims.

6. In the 1909 act, Muslims were given separate electorates and thereafter in 1919 act, Christians, Europeans, Sikhs were given separate electorates. 

7. The separate electorate to different communities was meant to destroy the rising Indian nationalism in India.

Hostility to educated Indians

1. The British established three universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

2. The British appreciated the educated Indians who did not participate in the 1857 revolt. But British officials now became totally against it after 1890 when these educated Indians demanded more and more share in the governance. 

Social reforms

1. The British abolished sati system, permitted widow remarriage, banned infanticide, raised marriageable age of girls. 

2. But after 1857, the Britishers abandoned social reform, fearing that any further social reform may create a reaction of people against the Britishers.

Racial Antagonism 

1. The British always maintained social distance from Indians and openly asserted the doctrine of racial supremacy.

Weakening of caste system and emancipation of women

1. Because of the social reforms by Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Dayanand Saraswati, Self respect movement in South India, rigidity of caste weakened.

2.  Women participated in large numbers in the national movement launched by Gandhi ji.

3. Education among women further strengthened their position in society

Conclusion

1. Every class and every section of Indian society gradually discovered that its interests were suffering in the hands of foreign rulers.

2. Peasants, artisans and craftsmen, educated Indians, the rising Indian capitalists and workers felt that the British rule was not good for them and for India.

3. The exploitative British domination gave rise to Indian nationalism. 

4. Only zamindars, landlords and the princes supported British imperialism. Even a section of them joined the national movement. 

5. The British rule for 200 years in India affected almost all classes of India. The Britishers took away $44 trillion from India in its 200  years rule.

6. Thus, British rule gave rise to new classes of absentee zamindars, moneylenders and princes who were staunch supporters of British Raj. On the other hand, a new capitalist class, industrial workers and educated middle class arose in India. They spread nationalist ideas and were completely opposed to communalism. 

Social Changes in Mughal Period (1526-1740 AD)

 

Introduction

1. Babur established the Mughal dynasty in 1526 AD by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat and also defeated Rana Sangha, Medini Rai, and Afghans.

2. The Mughal dynasty continued till 1857 but its effectiveness declined after 1740 AD.

3. During the Mughal period almost all parts of India up to Hindu Kush mountain was integrated.

4. The growth of Political integration was paralleled by cultural integration. 

5. Indian society developed a more or less unified culture despite differences in race, religion, and language. 

6. The period was also marked by economic development and growth. Trade and manufacturing expanded. There was expansion and improvement in cultivation. 

7. The 17th century witnessed great strides in Gujarat, Coromandel coast and Bengal.

Mutual harmony and toleration

1. During this period because of the Bhakti and Sufi movement, gradual understanding of fundamental tenets of Hinduism and Islam developed.

2. Bhakti saints laid emphasis on true faith rather than to formal observance. 

3. There was a setback to the growth of rational sciences. Similarly, India lagged behind in the development of the navy. Watch Full Video In Hindi On Youtube By Clicking On The Icon🔻

Social changes 

1. Caste continued to dominate. 

2. The Bhakti movement and Nath Panthi yogis could hardly make a dent in it.

3. Brahmins continued to claim privileged positions for themselves including the exclusive right to preach and educate.

4. Brahmins acquiesced in the advocacy of path of devotion as a way of salvation of all castes specially for Shudras.

5. Position of women worsened. 

6. There was no right to Hindu women for remarriage or share in their father’s property while muslim women could inherit property of their father. The Hindu women could claim only stree dhan (wedding gifts) from their parents. 

7. The ruling class remained strongly aristocratic in character.

8. There was less opportunities for people of lower classes to go on the higher scale. 

9. Because of the less opportunities of war, now the Rajput caste started giving primacy over descent instead of military achievement. The open ended Rajput caste became closed. 

10. During this period, a large number of tribals were Hinduised. 

An unequal society

1. Almost all foreign accounts tell us that India was rich and wealthy. Its ruling class led an ostentatious lifestyle while the ordinary people like peasants, artisans and labourers were suffering from acute poverty.

2. Peasants and lower classes had no sufficient clothes to cover their bodies,

3. Common People went on bare footed.

4. The ruling class consisted of the emperor and his scions, kings, nobility  and zamindars. They were a privileged class. 

5. Mughal nobles were drawn from central Asia, Iran, Khurasan and Afghanistan

6. During the period of Akbar, Hindu nobility formed 16% while during the period of Aurangzeb, Hindus nobility constituted 33%. 

7. Muslim and Hindu nobles kept a large number of women in their Harem. 

8. Polygamy became common among nobility and zamindars. 

9. The Mughal nobility constituted a composite ruling class representing different regions and religions. There were two kinds of nobles in the Mughal court - foreigners and indigenous.  Among the foreign nobles they were divided into Irani who were drawn from Iran and Turani who were drawn from central Asia. Among Hindu nobles, Rajputs of northern India and Marathas of Deccan constituted two important powerful groups in the Mughal court. 

10. Rapid growth in the number of nobility during the 17th century led to the crisis of the jagirdari system. 

11. The rural areas were dominated by zamindars. 

12. In addition to their own zamindari, they had the right to collect land revenue and the commission for collecting taxes  went up to 25%.

13. Peasants had hereditary rights in land and they could not be dispossessed from land as long as they paid the land revenue. 

14. So, peasants and zamindars had their own hereditary rights in lands. 

15. There were also numerous Rajas or kings who had accepted the sovereignty of Mughals in lieu of a fixed amount of annual homage to the Mughal emperor .

16. These Rajas or kings collected land revenue in their areas and had sufficient internal autonomy.

Middle class 

1. Because of the relative peace during the Mughal period, India had large number of rich traders and merchants. 

2. In addition, small Mansabdars, shop keepers, professionals like Hakim, musicians, artists, historians, scholars, Qazis, theologians, government officers formed the middle class.

3. The religious divines, scholars were granted small tracts of land for their maintenance and these grants were called Madad-e-mass. These land grants were often hereditary while the government officers were paid in cash.

Policy of Akbar

1. Mughal period saw harmonisation of relationship between Hindus and Muslims. 

2. Akbar abolished Jizya, pilgrimage tax, ban on prisoners of war to convert into Islam.

3. The Sati system was abolished by Akbar but with little success. 

4. Ban on child marriages but with no tangible results.

5. The policy of Sulah-Kul (conciliation to all) proved beneficial to the Hindu-Muslim unity.

6. Rajput policy further strengthened the harmony between Hindu and Muslim.

7. Rajput leaders became the solid rock behind the Mughal empire.

Policy of Aurangzeb

1. He re-imposed Jizya, toll tax, converted prisoners of wars into Islam  and destroyed many temples.

2. He gave rebates to Muslim traders in custom duties. While the Muslim traders were charged only 2.5 % custom duties, the Hindu traders were charged 5% on merchandise.

3. He annexed the Shia state of Bijapur and Golconda. 

4. He fought against Shivaji and was reluctant to give Marathas the local autonomy or watan (homeland).

5. He got killed Sambhaji, which led to the recurrent revolts among Marathas against Mughals. 

6. He suppressed Jat and Satnami revolts.  

7. He got killed Guru Teg Bahadur and four sons of Guru Govind Singh, and thereby alienated Sikhs from Mughals.

8. He Reversed the Rajput Policy of Akbar. And this was one of the reasons for the alienation of Hindus from the Mughals. 

Conclusion

1. The Mughal period saw harmony among Hindus and Muslims. But during the reign of Aurangzeb, this harmony was disrupted. 

2. India was the biggest economy of the world in 1700 AD but the society was very much unequal .

3. While the zamindars and nobles led the life of luxuries, common people eked out their livelihood with great difficulties.

4. In most of the cases, they could not earn more than Rs.5 per month. 

5. Overall, the society was peaceful and harmonious. 

6. Mughals did not face large scale revolts like during the sultanate period before the reign of Aurangzeb.

7. The reign of Aurangzeb saw large number of revolts by Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Afghans, Satnamis. 

8. The disharmony created by fanatic Aurangzeb led to the downfall of the Mughal empire and in 1739 by the attack of Nadir Shah, the Mughals were exposed to the world.

9. While the trade and manufactures continued to expand during the 18th century, in spite of the downfall of the Mughal Empire, it remained backward not only in the field of science and the technology but in size also. The craftsmen used simple tools and therefore. their efficiency remained low. Because of the concentration of wealth among zamindars, nobles and the emperors, the artisans and craftsmen could not become entrepreneurs like in Europe. The domestic market was limited and artisans and craftsmen had to be dependent upon merchants and traders.  Secondly, the skill of Indian artisans and availability in abundance inhibited efforts to develop and apply machine power to productive enterprises.  This resulted in low productivity. 

10. The Mughal period heralded cultural integration in India. They developed a unified culture despite differences in race, religion, ethnicity and language. This unified culture was reflected in an outburst of creative activity. However, this integrated culture came under pressure on account of attacks from the orthodox elements of Hinduism and Islam. On the whole, this cultural unity between Hindus and Muslims continued till the 19th century when people of both religious groups fought against British rule in the 1857 Revolt.