The economic impact of the British Rule

Disruption of the traditional economy

1.The British Rule in India disrupted the traditional structure of the Indian Economy. The economic policies pursued by the Britishers converted the Indian economy into a colonial economy which was to be guided by the needs of the British economy. Thus, the Indian economy was subordinated to the British trade and industry. The concept of self-sufficient village economy was torn asunder.  In its 200 years rule, the Britishers looted the wealth of India. According to one estimate made by an American historian, about $44 trillion were taken away by the Britishers. Thus, when the British left India, the GDP of Britain was 8% of the world GDP. While the GDP of India was reduced to 2-3% of the world GDP in 1947. It should be noted that in 1700 AD, the share of GDP of India was 23% of the world GDP. Thus, through the policy of mercantilism, free trade and financial capitalism, the Britishers destroyed handicraft industries of India and flooded the Indian market with British manufactured goods. Indian goods made with primitive techniques could not compete with goods produced on a mass scale by powerful steam operated machines. The railways enabled British manufacturers to reach and uproot the traditional industries in the remotest village of the country. The cotton weaving, spinning, silk, woollen textiles, iron, pottery, glass, paper, guns, shipping, tanning and dyeing industries were hard hit.

2.Servants of East India company  forced Indian artisans and craftsmen to sell their goods below the market price and to hire their services below the prevailing wage.

3.High import duties on Indian goods into Britain and Europe during the 18th and 19th century led to the virtual closing of Indian manufactured goods into the British and European market after 1820 A.D. 

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Ruin of towns and cities. 

1.Because of the decline of handicrafts and domestic industries, several cities like Dhaka, Patna,  Murshidabad, Surat also declined. Artisans and craftsmen left cities and overcrowded agriculture for their livelihood. Thus, between 1901 to 1941, the percentage of population dependent upon agriculture increased from 63.7% to 70%. This situation led to the extreme poverty of people in rural areas. 

Impoverishment of peasantry - 

1.The condition of peasants became miserable. In permanently settled Zamindari areas, peasants were left at the mercy of zamindars and intermediaries. Similarly, in Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas, excessive land revenue further alienated peasants from their lands.

2.Government spent very little for improving agriculture.

3.In case of default, lands of peasants were sold to money lenders and merchants.

4.In 1911, total rural debt was estimated at Rs.300 crores. By 1937, it amounted to Rs.1800 crores.

5.The growing commercialisation of agriculture also helped money lenders and merchants to exploit the cultivators. Peasants were forced to sell their products below market prices 

Ruin of old zamindars and rise of new zamindars-

1.On account of the Izaredari system, invented by Warren Hastings, most of the old zamindars fell into arrears and their zamindari were snatched away by the company government. Under this settlement, agricultural lands were auctioned to the highest bidders. 

2.Zamindari rights were given to capitalists, money lenders, merchants who could bid the highest auction. This led to the rise of new Zamindars who had no interest in land upgradation and these new zamindars lived in cities, lent their zamindari to intermediaries. Sometimes, the number of intermediaries went up to 50. 

3.In the Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas also, landlord-tenant relations spread gradually. Thus, in British India, landlordism became the main feature of agrarian relations throughout the length and breadth of the country.

Stagnation and deterioration of agriculture - Agricultural production failed by 14% between 1901 and 1939. Government refused to improve and modernise agriculture. By 1905, the government spent less than Rs.50 crore on irrigation while on railways it spent Rs.360 crores. Indian agriculture was primitive. The use of inorganic fertilisers was virtually unknown. 

Development of modern industries - 

1.In the later half of the 19th century British Capitalists installed industries in India because of the cheap labour and cheap raw materials available. 

2.The British Capitalists monopolised the plantation of tea, rubber, coffee, indigo and cornered all profits and sent them to England.

3.However, Indians developed cotton and jute industries.

4.TATAs developed Iron industries in 1907.

Extreme poverty of Indians- 

1. 94% of people were on the verge of starvation on the eve of our Independence 1947. 

2.Occurrence of a series of famines starting from 1770 to 1943. 

3.It is calculated that from 1854 to 1901, 28 million people died during famines.

4.In 1943, 3 million people died in Bengal.

5.In 1930, the average life expectancy of an Indian came down to 32 years against the average of 60 years for Europeans.

6.Britain subordinated the Indian economy to its own economy and determined the basic social trends in India according to its needs. This resulted in stagnation of agriculture and Industries, exploitation of its peasants and workers by the Zamindars, Land lords , Princes , Merchants, Money lenders, government officials.

7.The British rule spread poverty, disease and semi-starvation to the majority of people of India.

To conclude, the British rule wrought havoc in the traditional economy of India. India was converted from an exporter of handicrafts to the world to importer of machine made goods and exporter of raw materials. During the 200 years of British rule, while Indians became poorer, the loot from India helped in the growth of Industrial revolution of Britain and it became the most powerful country of the world in the 18th, 19th and 1st half of the 20th century.

Powers and Functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha.

 

Why is it in the news ?

1.After the general election, there is a provision to elect a member of Lok Sabha as the Speaker from amongst its members. The election of the Speaker is scheduled on 26th June 2024. Before the election of the Speaker, Bhartruhari Mehtab was appointed as pro-tem speaker by the President of India.  His function would be to administer oath/ affirmation to the newly elected members of the 18th Lok Sabha and to conduct the election of new Speaker. 

2.Although there is no provision of the pro-tem Speaker in the constitution, the handbook on the working on Parliamentary affairs mentions appointment and swearing-in of pro-tem Speaker. By convention, it is the senior most MP who has served maximum terms in the Lok Sabha should be appointed as the pro-tem Speaker. Congress objected to the appointment of Mr. Mehtab who is the seven time member of Lok Sabha. While K. Suresh from the Congress is the eighth time member of Lok Sabha.  Congress alleges that the convention of appointing MP with maximum terms in Lok Sabha has been thus broken. 

Election of the Speaker - 

1.According to article 93, Lok Sabha chooses Speaker and Deputy Speaker from among its members. All the Speakers in the independent India have been elected unopposed. 

2.The Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha by simple majority. He can be removed by the effective majority of members of the Lok Sabha, present and voting. This means that according to article 92 of the constitution, the Speaker can be removed by an effective majority +1. Effective majority means total strength minus vacancies. For example, if the Lok Sabha has a total strength of 550 members and if there are 7 vacancies, the effective strength would be 543 members. In order to remove the Speaker 271+1 = 272 members must vote against him. But prior to moving the resolution for the removal of the Speaker, a 14 days advance notice must be issued to him to this effect. Normally, a ruling party member is elected as Speaker. But during the period of coalition government, a member from other parties can also be elected as the Speaker. 

3.The Speaker can also be removed on being disqualified from being a Lok Sabha member under section 7 and 8 of the Representation of People’s Act, 1951. 

4.He can also tender his resignation on his own to the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

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Power and Functions of the Speaker-

1.He enforces discipline and decorum in the House. 

2.He decides the agenda for Parliamentary meetings.

3.He permits motions such as adjournments, no confidence and censure. 

4.He ensures quorum (the presence of 1/10th members of the House) of the House. If quorum is not available, he adjourns the House.

5.He has the power to punish members who indulge in unruly behaviours. 

6.He constitutes several committees like business advisory committee, rules committee and general purpose committee and these committees work under his supervision. 

7.He is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its committees and members. It is his sole privilege to refer a question of the breach of privilege to the Committee of Privilege for proper inquiry and report. 

8.The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha Secretariat. He manages the administrative and security arrangements of the Parliament complex. 

9. He is the sole authority to decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. 

10.In case of deadlock between two Houses in respect of ordinary bills, he is empowered to preside over the joint sitting of Parliament under article 108 of our constitution. 

11.In the case of Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachilhu, 1993, the Supreme Court of India held that the decision of the presiding officer is not final and is subject to judicial review on the basis of malafide and perversity. 

12.In Nabam Rabia vs Deputy Speaker case,2016, the Supreme Court of India held that the Speaker will be disabled from deciding disqualification petition under anti defection law, if notice for his removal is pending. 

13. Similarly, in 2023, the Supreme Court in Subhash Desai vs Principal Secretary, Governor of Maharashtra case, 2023, directed the Maharashtra assembly Speaker to set a timeline for the disqualification of the MLAs. 

14. Similarly, in 1994, the Supreme Court of India held that a majority can be tested only on the floor of assembly and not otherwise. 

Speakers of Lok Sabha 1.G V Mavlankar - 15 May 1952 to 27th February 1956. 2.M A Ayyangar - 8th March 1956 to 10th May 1957, 11th May 1957 to 16th April 1962. 3.Sardar Hukam Singh - 17th April 1962 to 16th March 1967 4.Neelam Sanjiv Reddy - 17th March 1967 to 19th  July 1969 5.Gurdayal Singh Dhillon - 8th August 1969 to 19th March 1971, 22nd March 1971 to 1st December 1975. 6.Baliram Bhagat - 15th January 1976 to 25th March 1977. 7.Neelam Sanjiva Reddy - 26th March 1977 to 13th July 1977. 8. K S Hegde - 21st July 1977 to 21st January 1980. 9.Balram Jakhar - 22nd January 1980 to 15th January 1985, 16th January 1985 to 18th December 1989. 10.Ravi Rai - 19th December 1989 to 9th July 1991. 11.Shivraj Patil - 10th July 1991 to 22nd May 1996. 12.P A Sangma - 23rd May 1996 to 23rd March 1998. 13.GMC Balayogi - 18th March 1998 to 19th October 1999, 22nd October 1999 to 3rd March 2002. 14.Manohar Joshi - 10th May 2002 to 2nd June 2004. 15.Somnath Chatterji - 4th June 2004 to 30th May 2009.  16. Mira Kumar - 30th May 2009 to 4th June 2014. 17. Sumitra Mahajan - 6th June 2014 to 16th June 2019. 18.Om Birla - 18th June 2019 to till date.

Important issues associated with the office of the Speaker  -

1.It is alleged that the Speaker favours his party men in Lok Sabha. 

2.He misuses discretionary powers while deciding money bills and political defections.

3.He is also criticised for restricting debates and discussions to favour the ruling party. 

4.He is also charged with putting party interest above national interest. 

5.He is also accused of adopting the tactics of gerrymandering to favour  the ruling party by putting bills on vote without discussion in the Parliament. 

6.He is also accused of putting a bill on vote without sending it to the select committee for proper discussion and deliberation by the opposition parties. For example, three farm laws were passed by the Lok Sabha in hurry and when the farmers agitated for one year long, the Government had to withdraw the bill. 

The Independence and impartiality of the Speaker -

1.Our constitution has secured the independence and impartiality of the Speaker by giving him a security of tenure. This means that the resolution for his removal can be moved in the Lok Sabha only after the support of 50 members and a 14 days advance notice to this effect. 

2.Secondly, his salaries and allowances are charged upon the consolidated fund of India and are therefore, non votable in the Parliament. 

3.His powers to regulate the procedure of conducting business in the Lok Sabha cannot be subject to judicial review. 

4.He cannot vote in the Lok Sabha but in case of tie, he has the right to cast his vote. 

5.In the order of precedence, he is placed at the sixth rank along with the chief justice of India and is thus above cabinet ministers except the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister.

Way Forward

1.The Speaker is a bridge between the government and the opposition. He is duty bound to uphold democratic process by ensuring adequate space both to the ruling party and the opposition parties. Once elected as the Speaker, he should resign his parent party and should work as neutral referee in the House like the Speaker of the House of the commons in Britain. In matters relating to disqualification of a member from the House under the anti-defection law (under tenth schedule) and in deciding a particular bill as a money bill, he should show non- partisanship. 

2.It is his primary duty that bills introduced by the Government must be adequately discussed in the House so that there should not be any lacunae left. And therefore, the bills should be referred to the select committee for proper deliberation. But this trend has been reversed in the previous Lok Sabha. The numbers of referred bills to select committees have declined from 71% during 2009-14 to 16% during 2019-24. 

3.The Speaker should also refrain from suspending large scale MPs. In the 17th Lok Sabha, the Speaker suspended more than 150 MPs. This is not a good sign of healthy democracy. After all, democracy is a government of deliberations and discussions. 

Conclusion

1.Parliamentary debates and deliberations are guided by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

2.He should set the highest standard in public life by working in a non-partisan way. 

3. Since he is one of the pillars of parliamentary democracy in India, he should be above party politics and should strengthen the democratic process in India.  

Social Changes in Mughal Period (1526-1740 AD)

 

Introduction

1. Babur established the Mughal dynasty in 1526 AD by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat and also defeated Rana Sangha, Medini Rai, and Afghans.

2. The Mughal dynasty continued till 1857 but its effectiveness declined after 1740 AD.

3. During the Mughal period almost all parts of India up to Hindu Kush mountain was integrated.

4. The growth of Political integration was paralleled by cultural integration. 

5. Indian society developed a more or less unified culture despite differences in race, religion, and language. 

6. The period was also marked by economic development and growth. Trade and manufacturing expanded. There was expansion and improvement in cultivation. 

7. The 17th century witnessed great strides in Gujarat, Coromandel coast and Bengal.

Mutual harmony and toleration

1. During this period because of the Bhakti and Sufi movement, gradual understanding of fundamental tenets of Hinduism and Islam developed.

2. Bhakti saints laid emphasis on true faith rather than to formal observance. 

3. There was a setback to the growth of rational sciences. Similarly, India lagged behind in the development of the navy. Watch Full Video In Hindi On Youtube By Clicking On The Icon🔻

Social changes 

1. Caste continued to dominate. 

2. The Bhakti movement and Nath Panthi yogis could hardly make a dent in it.

3. Brahmins continued to claim privileged positions for themselves including the exclusive right to preach and educate.

4. Brahmins acquiesced in the advocacy of path of devotion as a way of salvation of all castes specially for Shudras.

5. Position of women worsened. 

6. There was no right to Hindu women for remarriage or share in their father’s property while muslim women could inherit property of their father. The Hindu women could claim only stree dhan (wedding gifts) from their parents. 

7. The ruling class remained strongly aristocratic in character.

8. There was less opportunities for people of lower classes to go on the higher scale. 

9. Because of the less opportunities of war, now the Rajput caste started giving primacy over descent instead of military achievement. The open ended Rajput caste became closed. 

10. During this period, a large number of tribals were Hinduised. 

An unequal society

1. Almost all foreign accounts tell us that India was rich and wealthy. Its ruling class led an ostentatious lifestyle while the ordinary people like peasants, artisans and labourers were suffering from acute poverty.

2. Peasants and lower classes had no sufficient clothes to cover their bodies,

3. Common People went on bare footed.

4. The ruling class consisted of the emperor and his scions, kings, nobility  and zamindars. They were a privileged class. 

5. Mughal nobles were drawn from central Asia, Iran, Khurasan and Afghanistan

6. During the period of Akbar, Hindu nobility formed 16% while during the period of Aurangzeb, Hindus nobility constituted 33%. 

7. Muslim and Hindu nobles kept a large number of women in their Harem. 

8. Polygamy became common among nobility and zamindars. 

9. The Mughal nobility constituted a composite ruling class representing different regions and religions. There were two kinds of nobles in the Mughal court - foreigners and indigenous.  Among the foreign nobles they were divided into Irani who were drawn from Iran and Turani who were drawn from central Asia. Among Hindu nobles, Rajputs of northern India and Marathas of Deccan constituted two important powerful groups in the Mughal court. 

10. Rapid growth in the number of nobility during the 17th century led to the crisis of the jagirdari system. 

11. The rural areas were dominated by zamindars. 

12. In addition to their own zamindari, they had the right to collect land revenue and the commission for collecting taxes  went up to 25%.

13. Peasants had hereditary rights in land and they could not be dispossessed from land as long as they paid the land revenue. 

14. So, peasants and zamindars had their own hereditary rights in lands. 

15. There were also numerous Rajas or kings who had accepted the sovereignty of Mughals in lieu of a fixed amount of annual homage to the Mughal emperor .

16. These Rajas or kings collected land revenue in their areas and had sufficient internal autonomy.

Middle class 

1. Because of the relative peace during the Mughal period, India had large number of rich traders and merchants. 

2. In addition, small Mansabdars, shop keepers, professionals like Hakim, musicians, artists, historians, scholars, Qazis, theologians, government officers formed the middle class.

3. The religious divines, scholars were granted small tracts of land for their maintenance and these grants were called Madad-e-mass. These land grants were often hereditary while the government officers were paid in cash.

Policy of Akbar

1. Mughal period saw harmonisation of relationship between Hindus and Muslims. 

2. Akbar abolished Jizya, pilgrimage tax, ban on prisoners of war to convert into Islam.

3. The Sati system was abolished by Akbar but with little success. 

4. Ban on child marriages but with no tangible results.

5. The policy of Sulah-Kul (conciliation to all) proved beneficial to the Hindu-Muslim unity.

6. Rajput policy further strengthened the harmony between Hindu and Muslim.

7. Rajput leaders became the solid rock behind the Mughal empire.

Policy of Aurangzeb

1. He re-imposed Jizya, toll tax, converted prisoners of wars into Islam  and destroyed many temples.

2. He gave rebates to Muslim traders in custom duties. While the Muslim traders were charged only 2.5 % custom duties, the Hindu traders were charged 5% on merchandise.

3. He annexed the Shia state of Bijapur and Golconda. 

4. He fought against Shivaji and was reluctant to give Marathas the local autonomy or watan (homeland).

5. He got killed Sambhaji, which led to the recurrent revolts among Marathas against Mughals. 

6. He suppressed Jat and Satnami revolts.  

7. He got killed Guru Teg Bahadur and four sons of Guru Govind Singh, and thereby alienated Sikhs from Mughals.

8. He Reversed the Rajput Policy of Akbar. And this was one of the reasons for the alienation of Hindus from the Mughals. 

Conclusion

1. The Mughal period saw harmony among Hindus and Muslims. But during the reign of Aurangzeb, this harmony was disrupted. 

2. India was the biggest economy of the world in 1700 AD but the society was very much unequal .

3. While the zamindars and nobles led the life of luxuries, common people eked out their livelihood with great difficulties.

4. In most of the cases, they could not earn more than Rs.5 per month. 

5. Overall, the society was peaceful and harmonious. 

6. Mughals did not face large scale revolts like during the sultanate period before the reign of Aurangzeb.

7. The reign of Aurangzeb saw large number of revolts by Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Afghans, Satnamis. 

8. The disharmony created by fanatic Aurangzeb led to the downfall of the Mughal empire and in 1739 by the attack of Nadir Shah, the Mughals were exposed to the world.

9. While the trade and manufactures continued to expand during the 18th century, in spite of the downfall of the Mughal Empire, it remained backward not only in the field of science and the technology but in size also. The craftsmen used simple tools and therefore. their efficiency remained low. Because of the concentration of wealth among zamindars, nobles and the emperors, the artisans and craftsmen could not become entrepreneurs like in Europe. The domestic market was limited and artisans and craftsmen had to be dependent upon merchants and traders.  Secondly, the skill of Indian artisans and availability in abundance inhibited efforts to develop and apply machine power to productive enterprises.  This resulted in low productivity. 

10. The Mughal period heralded cultural integration in India. They developed a unified culture despite differences in race, religion, ethnicity and language. This unified culture was reflected in an outburst of creative activity. However, this integrated culture came under pressure on account of attacks from the orthodox elements of Hinduism and Islam. On the whole, this cultural unity between Hindus and Muslims continued till the 19th century when people of both religious groups fought against British rule in the 1857 Revolt.