Is the Indian Constitution a federal structure ?

 Why is it in the news?

Hon’ble Shri DY Chandrachud, the Chief Justice of India, while delivering inaugural Lok Satta lecture in Mumbai on 26th October, said “States and union are both creatures of the constitution. They must act in deference to their legislative boundaries in finding meaningful solutions to modern day problems. Our ability to address these challenges is the litmus test for our imperfect federalism and the framers’ faith in it. If federalism in the years gone by was about adjusting to political realities in terms of legislative powers, in the years to come should be evaluated based on its ability to foster democracy and constitutional ideals of equality, liberty, dignity and fraternity. “

Introduction

The Indian Constitution does not use the word federation. Instead, it uses the term union. Article 1 says that India, that is , Bharat shall be a union of states. It means that unlike federation, the central government is not the outcome of agreement among federating units. Secondly,  the federating units have no right to secede from the central government. However, the Indian constitution postulates a federation with a centralising tendency. In the Bommai case (1994), the Supreme Court laid down that the constitution of India is federal and federalism is its basic feature. The court held that the states have independent constitutional existence. They are not subordinates or agents of the centre. Within the sphere allotted to them, states are supreme. 

What is Federalism ?

1.Federalism pre-supposes a dual government where both central and the state governments derive their power from the constitution. The power is divided between the national and state governments with clear boundaries. Secondly, it has a written constitution where both central and state governments have defined jurisdictions.  An independent judiciary which acts as the guardian of the constitution. Bicameral legislature is established whereby the second chamber represents the interests of the states. Federalism pre-supposes a rigid constitution so that no constitutional amendment can be made by ordinary legislation. In a federal structure, supremacy of the constitution is of paramount importance and thus, whenever Parliament or State legislature exceeds its power or does not conform to the provisions of the constitution, the laws passed by the Parliament or state assemblies are struck down. 

2.On the contrary, in a unitary government, all powers are vested in the central government. Moreover, the central government creates regional governments like in the UK. 

Federal features of the Indian Constitution

1.The constitution of India establishes a dual polity consisting of the union and state governments. At present, there are 28 states. They have been assigned powers separately. They are not subordinate to the Union Government. While, the Union Government deals with foreign, defence, currency, communication and so on the state governments have been bestowed with to work for regional interests like public order, agriculture, health, local self government, police etc. 

2. The Seventh Schedule of the constitution of India consists of three lists - The Union List comprising 100 subjects, the State List comprising 59 subjects and the Concurrent List comprising 52 subjects. Both the central and state governments can make laws on the subjects included in the concurrent list. But in case of any conflict, the laws made by the Parliament would supersede the laws made by state assemblies under concurrent lists. However, unlike the US constitution, the residuary subjects are vested in the central government. 

3.Our constitution clearly gives its supremacy. Thus, in case the Parliament or State Legislature exceeds its powers or its limitations, the laws passed by the legislature or parliament are declared null and void by the Supreme Court under judicial review. 

4. Ours is a written constitution. The constitution was drafted and prepared by the constituent assembly represented by 299 members from the nook and corner of the country. It contains 470 articles and 12 schedules. The constitution has clearly discussed and demarcated  the structures and functions of the central, state and local governments. 

5.Our constitution is a mixture of flexibility and rigidity. While some of the provisions of the constitution can be amended by both Houses of the Parliament with special majority, the federal structure like the central state relations, judiciary, inter-state commerce can only be amended by both Houses of Parliament and  the concurrence of half of the state legislature by the simple majority. 

6. Our constitution has made provisions for an independent judiciary by securing the tenures of judges, fixed conditions of service and independence from the executive. It has also been assigned the task to settle the disputes between the union and the state governments or between state governments. 

7. Our constitution lays down a bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper House (Rajya Sabha) and a Lower House (Lok Sabha). While the Lower House is elected on the basis of universal suffrage, the Upper House is represented by states to protect their interests.  

8.The judicial intervention by the Supreme Court further strengthened the federal features of our constitution. For example, the Supreme Court held that a bill passed by the state legislature and presented before the Governor for his assent, cannot withhold the bill indefinitely. Rather a Governor can withhold with the assent of the bill only to send it for reconsideration, thereby circumscribing the discretionary power of the Governor.   Similarly, in the Bommai case (1994), the Supreme Court held that the test of the majority can only be held at the floor of the House, thereby, limiting the misuse of article 356 by the Governor for the imposition of  the President’s Rule in the state. 

9. Assertion of autonomy by states, demand for more financial grants by the states from the divisible pool of the central proceeds, disputes between states over the sharing of river water, territorial disputes between different states, creation of new states and finally emergence of regional parties to reduce regional disparities and for balanced regional development are some of the important federal trends that are being reflected in the working of the constitution of India for the last 75 years. 

Centralising features of the constitution of India  

There are certain centralising features which contrast the Indian constitution from the US constitution in so far as  the federal features are concerned. These are 

• Emergency Provisions under articles 352, 356 and 360

• Integrated judiciary 

• All India Services 

• Integrated audit system

• Integrated election commission

• Appointment/ Powers and Functions of Governor

• Parliament's authority even in the matters relating to the state list

• Single citizenship 

• Single constitution

• No equality of state representation in the Rajya Sabha

• More powers to the union government than state governments 

• The President enjoys absolute veto over state bills 

Conclusion

1. The Indian constitution postulates cooperative federalism where the union and state governments work together to iron out the differences that arise in governance to achieve the common goal of development. 

2. The states are in no way dependent upon the centre for the legislative or the executive authority. Both the centre and the state derive their power from the constitution itself. 

3.However, to strengthen the unity and integrity of India, certain exceptional provisions were made to face the challenges in abnormal/ exceptional situations so that in case of emergencies , India acts as a single powerful body. That’s why provisions of emergency, flexibility in the amendment of the constitution and a strong central government have been made. 

Reorganisation of States and Union Territories after Independence

 Why is it in the news ?
1. The J & K cabinet led by Chief Minister Umar Abdullah passed a resolution calling for the restoration of the statehood to the Union territory. However, the opposition party criticised the move as the resolution did not take into account the restoration of article 370, giving special status to J & K. 
2. It should be noted that on 5th August 2019, the Union Government abrogated article 370 and thus, snatched away the special status accorded to it by the constitution of India. In addition, the province of J & K was split into two union territories of J & K with legislative assembly and Ladakh with no legislative assembly. 
3. J & K lieutenant Governor Shri Manoj Sinha has cleared the resolution passed by the Umar Abdullah cabinet urging the centre to restore the statehood to the Union Territory. 
4. The official statement said that the restoration of statehood will be the beginning of a healing process, reclaiming the constitutional rights and protecting the identity of the J & K. 
5. The cabinet has authorised the chief minister to take up the matter with the Prime Minister and Government of India for the status of statehood. It has been learnt that the newly elected Chief Minister Umar Abdullah would be proceeding to New Delhi in the coming days to meet the Prime Minister and Union Ministers in this regard. 
6. The downgrading of a state into a Union Territory was the first example in independent India. There are many examples when union territories were upgraded to statehood like Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh. The contention of the Union Government was that the special status of J & K and downgrading of the state to union territory was done to control separatist forces in the valley. It was necessary to check Pakistani sponsored terrorist activities into the valley. 


History of reorganisation of states and Union Territories in India
1. India is a vast country. It cannot be run from one centre. So to run the administration smoothly, the country has been divided administratively into different provinces. 
2. In the Mauryan Period, there were four provincial centres headed by the scions of the royal family. These centres were Takshila near Peshawar Pakistan, Ujjayini (Malwa), Tosili (Odisha), Suvarngiri (Karnataka).
3. The Sultans of Delhi introduced the Iqta system headed by Mukti or Wali. Later on, these Iqtas became provinces. During the period of Allauddin Khilji, provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Badaun (UP), Gujarat, Malwa and Deccan came into existence. 
4. During the Mughal Period, there were 15 provinces during the regime of Emperor Akbar, which increased to 21 during the period of Aurangzeb when he annexed Bijapur, Golkonda, Assam. During the Mughal Period prominent provinces were : Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Bengal, Gujarat Deccan, Bihar, Multan, Malwa, Awadh and Kabul. 
5. During the British Period, India was divided into British India directly controlled by the British Government and Princely states indirectly controlled by it. In British India, there were 12 provinces called Bengal Presidency, Bombay Presidency, Madras Presidency, United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Odisha, Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, North West Frontier Province, Sindh, Balochistan, Ajmer-Merwara. Important Princely states were Hyderabad, Kashmir, Mysore, Baroda, Travancore, Bhopal. 
6. After independence there was sharp demand from the Southern States to reorganise states on the basis of language. The union government appointed S K Dhar and later on the J V P (Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya) committee. Both committees rejected the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis. 
After the annexation of Princely States into India, the territory of India was reorganised into four categories in 1950.
Part A : Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Odisha, Punjab, United Province, West Bengal.
Part B : Hyderabad, J & K, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Travancore and Cochin, Vindhya Pradesh. 
Part C : Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Cooch Behar, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura.
Part D : Andaman & Nicobar island.
7. In 1953, the Union Government was forced to reorganise Andhra Pradesh by carving out the Madras Presidency for Telugu speaking people on account of the death of P Sriramulu of 56 days long hunger strike. 
8. The union Government appointed the Fasal Ali commission consisting of Justice Fazal Ali as chairman , K M Panikar and H N Kunzru as its members. On the basis of the recommendation of the commission, 14 states and 6 UTs were reorganised on 1st November 1956. These states were Andhra Pradesh,  Assam, Bihar, J & K, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. Six Union Territories were Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Lakshadweep , Manipur, Tripura. Thus, the distinction between Part A and Part B states was removed. Part C states were abolished. Some of them were merged with adjoining states while others were made Union Territories. For example, Ajmer was merged with Rajasthan, Bhopal with Madhya Pradesh, Bilaspur with Himachal Pradesh, Cooch Behar with West Bengal, Coorg with Karnataka, Kutch with Gujarat. While Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura were made Union Territories because of their strategic locations. Similarly, Part B state of Hyderabad was merged with Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Bharat with Madhya Pradesh, Mysore with Karnataka, Patiala and East Punjab with the Punjab Province, Saurashtra with Gujarat, Travancore Cochin was merged with a new state Kerala, Malabar District of Madras and Kasargod district of South Canara were merged with Kerala. 
9.In 1960, the Bombay province was divided into Marathi speaking Maharashtra and Gujarati speaking Gujarat State. 
10. Dadra & Nagar Haveli were liberated in 1954 from Portuguese control. It was made an Union Territory in 1961. In 2020, this Union Territory was merged with Daman & Diu. 
11. The Portuguese enclave of Goa, Daman & Diu were liberated in 1961. It was made a Union Territory in 1962. In 1987, Goa got statehood. 
12. The French Government handed over its enclave of Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam in 1954. In 1962, it was made a union territory. In 1963, Nagaland was carved out from Assam to make it a separate state. In 1966, Punjab Province was divided into Punjabi Speaking Punjab and Hindi Speaking Haryana. Chandigarh was made the joint capital of both the states. 
13. In 1972, Union Territories of Manipur, Tripura and Sub State of Meghalaya got statehood while Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh accorded the status of Union Territories. These two union territories became full states in 1987. 
14. Sikkim became the 22nd state of India in 1975. In 2000, three states came into existence. Uttarakhand was carved out from Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand from Bihar and Chhattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh. 
15. In 2014, Telangana was carved out from Andhra Pradesh. In 2019, J & K lost its statehood and was downgraded to UT. A separate Union Territory of Ladakh was carved out from J & K.
16.Thus, as of now there are 28 states and 8 Union territories in India.
Causes for the demands of new States in India after Independence
1.Linguistic and Cultural identity - States like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Haryana were carved out to meet the linguistic and cultural identity of the people. 
2. Ethnic affinity - States like Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura were made to meet the aspirations of different ethnic communities. The Bodo people of Assam are agitating for separate Bodo land to preserve their ethnic identity. 
3. Economic disparities - States like Uttrakhand, Chhattisgarh, Telangana were created to undo the economic disparities in those regions. People of Vidarbha (Maharashtra), Eastern UP, Mithalanchal in Bihar are agitating for separate statehood because of the economic regional disparities. 
4. Tribal identity - States like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh were created to meet the aspirations of tribals of those regions where they constitute a large number. The people of Gorkhaland have been agitating for separate statehood to preserve their cultural identity. 
5. Administrative Efficiency -  When a state is very big, it becomes difficult to administer efficiently. That’s why, there is a demand to bifurcate UP in four parts and Rajasthan in two parts. 
Difference between States and Union Territories 
1. Under our constitution, states have got a separate division of power under schedule VII of our constitution. While state assemblies can make laws on subjects listed in State and concurrent list, the Union Parliament can make laws on the subjects included in the Union List. 
Union Territories are directly governed by the Central Government through an Administrator or lieutenant Governor. Delhi, Puducherry and J & K have legislative assemblies but their legislative power is limited when compared to states. For example, the central Government has exclusive jurisdiction in matters relating to land, public order and police in the Union Territory of Delhi. Similarly, In J & K, the central Government has exclusive jurisdiction over security , police and public order. 
2. Except Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir and Puducherry, other Union Territories have no right to send MPs to Rajya Sabha like States. 
3. States have authority to collect certain taxes and receive a share of central taxes based on the recommendation of the finance commission. On the other hand Union Territories are generally more financially dependent upon the central Government.
4. Heads of the states are Governor while head of UTs is the President of India who governs UTs through Lieutenant Governors or Administrators. 

Constitutional Provision

1.According to Article 1 of our constitution, India, that is, Bharat, shall be a union of states. The term union implies that no state has the right to secede from the Union. Nor Union has been made by the agreements among different units (states). The term federation was deliberately not applied in our constitution. Thus, the Union Government is indestructible made of destructible states. Unlike the US, the Parliament is authorised under article 3 to form a new state by separation of territories from any state by uniting two or more states or parts of states or by uniting any territory to a part of any state. The Parliament has power to increase the area of any state, diminish the area of any state and alter the boundaries of any state or alter the name of any state. The changes in the composition of the state can be made by a simple legislation process, It has not to go through constitutional amendment process under article 368. 

Article 3 lays down two conditions in this regard. 

• A bill contemplating any above changes can be introduced in Parliament only with the prior recommendation of the President.

• The President has to refer the same to the state legislature for expressing its views for the specified period. According to the 18th constitutional amendment Act,1966, the Parliament has been empowered to form a new state or Union Territory by uniting a part of any state. The President is not bound by the views of the state legislature or may either accept or reject them. Thus, Parliament is authorised to redraw the political map according to its will. The union Government can destroy the state or UT while states or union territory cannot destroy the Union. In the USA, the territorial integrity of States is guaranteed by the constitution and so no alteration or changes in the composition of states can take place without the consent of the concerned states. 

• However, Parliament cannot cede any territory of India to any foreign country after the constitutional amendment under article 368. 

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Way Out 

1. The Government has launched several measures to address regional disparities in India. It has started a special area development programme, providing incentives to promote investment in backward areas. Major financial institutions are providing concessional finance to backward areas. The Central Government is giving income tax concession, transport subsidy and investment subsidy to the entrepreneurs, and employment opportunities to people below poverty line, especially  SCs/STs in backward regions. Government has instituted backward regions grant funds to meet rural infrastructure needs. Similarly, the North Eastern region is being given top priority to accelerate development there. However, in spite of the efforts of the Government since the First five year plan, the regional disparities could not be reduced. There is a huge disparity between Northern and Southern Regions. Similarly, there is a big disparity between the different parts of a state. This causes resentment and clamour for separate statehood. Similarly, tribal councils under Fifth and Sixth schedule should be strengthened so that tribals are connected with the mainstream of the administration. However, the one state-one language formula must be discouraged. The future states must be carved out taking into account administrative efficiency, cultural homogeneity and emotional bonding of the people of a particular region.  

Powers and Functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha.

 

Why is it in the news ?

1.After the general election, there is a provision to elect a member of Lok Sabha as the Speaker from amongst its members. The election of the Speaker is scheduled on 26th June 2024. Before the election of the Speaker, Bhartruhari Mehtab was appointed as pro-tem speaker by the President of India.  His function would be to administer oath/ affirmation to the newly elected members of the 18th Lok Sabha and to conduct the election of new Speaker. 

2.Although there is no provision of the pro-tem Speaker in the constitution, the handbook on the working on Parliamentary affairs mentions appointment and swearing-in of pro-tem Speaker. By convention, it is the senior most MP who has served maximum terms in the Lok Sabha should be appointed as the pro-tem Speaker. Congress objected to the appointment of Mr. Mehtab who is the seven time member of Lok Sabha. While K. Suresh from the Congress is the eighth time member of Lok Sabha.  Congress alleges that the convention of appointing MP with maximum terms in Lok Sabha has been thus broken. 

Election of the Speaker - 

1.According to article 93, Lok Sabha chooses Speaker and Deputy Speaker from among its members. All the Speakers in the independent India have been elected unopposed. 

2.The Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha by simple majority. He can be removed by the effective majority of members of the Lok Sabha, present and voting. This means that according to article 92 of the constitution, the Speaker can be removed by an effective majority +1. Effective majority means total strength minus vacancies. For example, if the Lok Sabha has a total strength of 550 members and if there are 7 vacancies, the effective strength would be 543 members. In order to remove the Speaker 271+1 = 272 members must vote against him. But prior to moving the resolution for the removal of the Speaker, a 14 days advance notice must be issued to him to this effect. Normally, a ruling party member is elected as Speaker. But during the period of coalition government, a member from other parties can also be elected as the Speaker. 

3.The Speaker can also be removed on being disqualified from being a Lok Sabha member under section 7 and 8 of the Representation of People’s Act, 1951. 

4.He can also tender his resignation on his own to the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

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Power and Functions of the Speaker-

1.He enforces discipline and decorum in the House. 

2.He decides the agenda for Parliamentary meetings.

3.He permits motions such as adjournments, no confidence and censure. 

4.He ensures quorum (the presence of 1/10th members of the House) of the House. If quorum is not available, he adjourns the House.

5.He has the power to punish members who indulge in unruly behaviours. 

6.He constitutes several committees like business advisory committee, rules committee and general purpose committee and these committees work under his supervision. 

7.He is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its committees and members. It is his sole privilege to refer a question of the breach of privilege to the Committee of Privilege for proper inquiry and report. 

8.The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha Secretariat. He manages the administrative and security arrangements of the Parliament complex. 

9. He is the sole authority to decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. 

10.In case of deadlock between two Houses in respect of ordinary bills, he is empowered to preside over the joint sitting of Parliament under article 108 of our constitution. 

11.In the case of Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachilhu, 1993, the Supreme Court of India held that the decision of the presiding officer is not final and is subject to judicial review on the basis of malafide and perversity. 

12.In Nabam Rabia vs Deputy Speaker case,2016, the Supreme Court of India held that the Speaker will be disabled from deciding disqualification petition under anti defection law, if notice for his removal is pending. 

13. Similarly, in 2023, the Supreme Court in Subhash Desai vs Principal Secretary, Governor of Maharashtra case, 2023, directed the Maharashtra assembly Speaker to set a timeline for the disqualification of the MLAs. 

14. Similarly, in 1994, the Supreme Court of India held that a majority can be tested only on the floor of assembly and not otherwise. 

Speakers of Lok Sabha 1.G V Mavlankar - 15 May 1952 to 27th February 1956. 2.M A Ayyangar - 8th March 1956 to 10th May 1957, 11th May 1957 to 16th April 1962. 3.Sardar Hukam Singh - 17th April 1962 to 16th March 1967 4.Neelam Sanjiv Reddy - 17th March 1967 to 19th  July 1969 5.Gurdayal Singh Dhillon - 8th August 1969 to 19th March 1971, 22nd March 1971 to 1st December 1975. 6.Baliram Bhagat - 15th January 1976 to 25th March 1977. 7.Neelam Sanjiva Reddy - 26th March 1977 to 13th July 1977. 8. K S Hegde - 21st July 1977 to 21st January 1980. 9.Balram Jakhar - 22nd January 1980 to 15th January 1985, 16th January 1985 to 18th December 1989. 10.Ravi Rai - 19th December 1989 to 9th July 1991. 11.Shivraj Patil - 10th July 1991 to 22nd May 1996. 12.P A Sangma - 23rd May 1996 to 23rd March 1998. 13.GMC Balayogi - 18th March 1998 to 19th October 1999, 22nd October 1999 to 3rd March 2002. 14.Manohar Joshi - 10th May 2002 to 2nd June 2004. 15.Somnath Chatterji - 4th June 2004 to 30th May 2009.  16. Mira Kumar - 30th May 2009 to 4th June 2014. 17. Sumitra Mahajan - 6th June 2014 to 16th June 2019. 18.Om Birla - 18th June 2019 to till date.

Important issues associated with the office of the Speaker  -

1.It is alleged that the Speaker favours his party men in Lok Sabha. 

2.He misuses discretionary powers while deciding money bills and political defections.

3.He is also criticised for restricting debates and discussions to favour the ruling party. 

4.He is also charged with putting party interest above national interest. 

5.He is also accused of adopting the tactics of gerrymandering to favour  the ruling party by putting bills on vote without discussion in the Parliament. 

6.He is also accused of putting a bill on vote without sending it to the select committee for proper discussion and deliberation by the opposition parties. For example, three farm laws were passed by the Lok Sabha in hurry and when the farmers agitated for one year long, the Government had to withdraw the bill. 

The Independence and impartiality of the Speaker -

1.Our constitution has secured the independence and impartiality of the Speaker by giving him a security of tenure. This means that the resolution for his removal can be moved in the Lok Sabha only after the support of 50 members and a 14 days advance notice to this effect. 

2.Secondly, his salaries and allowances are charged upon the consolidated fund of India and are therefore, non votable in the Parliament. 

3.His powers to regulate the procedure of conducting business in the Lok Sabha cannot be subject to judicial review. 

4.He cannot vote in the Lok Sabha but in case of tie, he has the right to cast his vote. 

5.In the order of precedence, he is placed at the sixth rank along with the chief justice of India and is thus above cabinet ministers except the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister.

Way Forward

1.The Speaker is a bridge between the government and the opposition. He is duty bound to uphold democratic process by ensuring adequate space both to the ruling party and the opposition parties. Once elected as the Speaker, he should resign his parent party and should work as neutral referee in the House like the Speaker of the House of the commons in Britain. In matters relating to disqualification of a member from the House under the anti-defection law (under tenth schedule) and in deciding a particular bill as a money bill, he should show non- partisanship. 

2.It is his primary duty that bills introduced by the Government must be adequately discussed in the House so that there should not be any lacunae left. And therefore, the bills should be referred to the select committee for proper deliberation. But this trend has been reversed in the previous Lok Sabha. The numbers of referred bills to select committees have declined from 71% during 2009-14 to 16% during 2019-24. 

3.The Speaker should also refrain from suspending large scale MPs. In the 17th Lok Sabha, the Speaker suspended more than 150 MPs. This is not a good sign of healthy democracy. After all, democracy is a government of deliberations and discussions. 

Conclusion

1.Parliamentary debates and deliberations are guided by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

2.He should set the highest standard in public life by working in a non-partisan way. 

3. Since he is one of the pillars of parliamentary democracy in India, he should be above party politics and should strengthen the democratic process in India.  

Social Changes in Mughal Period (1526-1740 AD)

 

Introduction

1. Babur established the Mughal dynasty in 1526 AD by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat and also defeated Rana Sangha, Medini Rai, and Afghans.

2. The Mughal dynasty continued till 1857 but its effectiveness declined after 1740 AD.

3. During the Mughal period almost all parts of India up to Hindu Kush mountain was integrated.

4. The growth of Political integration was paralleled by cultural integration. 

5. Indian society developed a more or less unified culture despite differences in race, religion, and language. 

6. The period was also marked by economic development and growth. Trade and manufacturing expanded. There was expansion and improvement in cultivation. 

7. The 17th century witnessed great strides in Gujarat, Coromandel coast and Bengal.

Mutual harmony and toleration

1. During this period because of the Bhakti and Sufi movement, gradual understanding of fundamental tenets of Hinduism and Islam developed.

2. Bhakti saints laid emphasis on true faith rather than to formal observance. 

3. There was a setback to the growth of rational sciences. Similarly, India lagged behind in the development of the navy. Watch Full Video In Hindi On Youtube By Clicking On The Icon🔻

Social changes 

1. Caste continued to dominate. 

2. The Bhakti movement and Nath Panthi yogis could hardly make a dent in it.

3. Brahmins continued to claim privileged positions for themselves including the exclusive right to preach and educate.

4. Brahmins acquiesced in the advocacy of path of devotion as a way of salvation of all castes specially for Shudras.

5. Position of women worsened. 

6. There was no right to Hindu women for remarriage or share in their father’s property while muslim women could inherit property of their father. The Hindu women could claim only stree dhan (wedding gifts) from their parents. 

7. The ruling class remained strongly aristocratic in character.

8. There was less opportunities for people of lower classes to go on the higher scale. 

9. Because of the less opportunities of war, now the Rajput caste started giving primacy over descent instead of military achievement. The open ended Rajput caste became closed. 

10. During this period, a large number of tribals were Hinduised. 

An unequal society

1. Almost all foreign accounts tell us that India was rich and wealthy. Its ruling class led an ostentatious lifestyle while the ordinary people like peasants, artisans and labourers were suffering from acute poverty.

2. Peasants and lower classes had no sufficient clothes to cover their bodies,

3. Common People went on bare footed.

4. The ruling class consisted of the emperor and his scions, kings, nobility  and zamindars. They were a privileged class. 

5. Mughal nobles were drawn from central Asia, Iran, Khurasan and Afghanistan

6. During the period of Akbar, Hindu nobility formed 16% while during the period of Aurangzeb, Hindus nobility constituted 33%. 

7. Muslim and Hindu nobles kept a large number of women in their Harem. 

8. Polygamy became common among nobility and zamindars. 

9. The Mughal nobility constituted a composite ruling class representing different regions and religions. There were two kinds of nobles in the Mughal court - foreigners and indigenous.  Among the foreign nobles they were divided into Irani who were drawn from Iran and Turani who were drawn from central Asia. Among Hindu nobles, Rajputs of northern India and Marathas of Deccan constituted two important powerful groups in the Mughal court. 

10. Rapid growth in the number of nobility during the 17th century led to the crisis of the jagirdari system. 

11. The rural areas were dominated by zamindars. 

12. In addition to their own zamindari, they had the right to collect land revenue and the commission for collecting taxes  went up to 25%.

13. Peasants had hereditary rights in land and they could not be dispossessed from land as long as they paid the land revenue. 

14. So, peasants and zamindars had their own hereditary rights in lands. 

15. There were also numerous Rajas or kings who had accepted the sovereignty of Mughals in lieu of a fixed amount of annual homage to the Mughal emperor .

16. These Rajas or kings collected land revenue in their areas and had sufficient internal autonomy.

Middle class 

1. Because of the relative peace during the Mughal period, India had large number of rich traders and merchants. 

2. In addition, small Mansabdars, shop keepers, professionals like Hakim, musicians, artists, historians, scholars, Qazis, theologians, government officers formed the middle class.

3. The religious divines, scholars were granted small tracts of land for their maintenance and these grants were called Madad-e-mass. These land grants were often hereditary while the government officers were paid in cash.

Policy of Akbar

1. Mughal period saw harmonisation of relationship between Hindus and Muslims. 

2. Akbar abolished Jizya, pilgrimage tax, ban on prisoners of war to convert into Islam.

3. The Sati system was abolished by Akbar but with little success. 

4. Ban on child marriages but with no tangible results.

5. The policy of Sulah-Kul (conciliation to all) proved beneficial to the Hindu-Muslim unity.

6. Rajput policy further strengthened the harmony between Hindu and Muslim.

7. Rajput leaders became the solid rock behind the Mughal empire.

Policy of Aurangzeb

1. He re-imposed Jizya, toll tax, converted prisoners of wars into Islam  and destroyed many temples.

2. He gave rebates to Muslim traders in custom duties. While the Muslim traders were charged only 2.5 % custom duties, the Hindu traders were charged 5% on merchandise.

3. He annexed the Shia state of Bijapur and Golconda. 

4. He fought against Shivaji and was reluctant to give Marathas the local autonomy or watan (homeland).

5. He got killed Sambhaji, which led to the recurrent revolts among Marathas against Mughals. 

6. He suppressed Jat and Satnami revolts.  

7. He got killed Guru Teg Bahadur and four sons of Guru Govind Singh, and thereby alienated Sikhs from Mughals.

8. He Reversed the Rajput Policy of Akbar. And this was one of the reasons for the alienation of Hindus from the Mughals. 

Conclusion

1. The Mughal period saw harmony among Hindus and Muslims. But during the reign of Aurangzeb, this harmony was disrupted. 

2. India was the biggest economy of the world in 1700 AD but the society was very much unequal .

3. While the zamindars and nobles led the life of luxuries, common people eked out their livelihood with great difficulties.

4. In most of the cases, they could not earn more than Rs.5 per month. 

5. Overall, the society was peaceful and harmonious. 

6. Mughals did not face large scale revolts like during the sultanate period before the reign of Aurangzeb.

7. The reign of Aurangzeb saw large number of revolts by Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Afghans, Satnamis. 

8. The disharmony created by fanatic Aurangzeb led to the downfall of the Mughal empire and in 1739 by the attack of Nadir Shah, the Mughals were exposed to the world.

9. While the trade and manufactures continued to expand during the 18th century, in spite of the downfall of the Mughal Empire, it remained backward not only in the field of science and the technology but in size also. The craftsmen used simple tools and therefore. their efficiency remained low. Because of the concentration of wealth among zamindars, nobles and the emperors, the artisans and craftsmen could not become entrepreneurs like in Europe. The domestic market was limited and artisans and craftsmen had to be dependent upon merchants and traders.  Secondly, the skill of Indian artisans and availability in abundance inhibited efforts to develop and apply machine power to productive enterprises.  This resulted in low productivity. 

10. The Mughal period heralded cultural integration in India. They developed a unified culture despite differences in race, religion, ethnicity and language. This unified culture was reflected in an outburst of creative activity. However, this integrated culture came under pressure on account of attacks from the orthodox elements of Hinduism and Islam. On the whole, this cultural unity between Hindus and Muslims continued till the 19th century when people of both religious groups fought against British rule in the 1857 Revolt.