Achievements in Science and Technology in Ancient India

Why is it in the news?

1.The noted historian William Dalrymple wrote the “Golden Road : How Ancient India Transformed the World?”. The book was published earlier this year, which gives the complete idea as to how India was everything that happened in the ancient world right up to the early stages of the rise of Islam. 

2.According to him, India, not China, was at the heart of ancient commerce. It was the bristling maritime trade between India and the rest of the world which boosted international trade. That India was indeed a maritime power touching Egyptian ports to the West and Indonesia and the rest of SouthEast Asia to its East. The outcome of this association was the construction  of the largest Hindu Temple complex at Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist shrine in Indonesia. 

3. Through the ages scholars, kings, caliph, emperors across the world from China to Western and Central Asia admired India as the principal knowledge hub even after the advent of Islam. India’s rich mathematical and astronomical tradition continued to dazzle the world. The Chinese emperors gave shelter to Indian mathematicians, astronomers, and scholars in their courts. 

4.The Historian William Dalrymple, brought out how ancient India was as great and as dynamic civilisation as China was at a time when the west was hardly in reckoning. According to him, Indians made astonishing advances in science and technology in ancient India. 

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Achievements in Science and Technology in ancient India

1.Ancient Indians made three important contributions. These are the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notational system was adopted by the Arab who spread it to the western world. The decimal system was borrowed by the Chinese from Buddhist missionaries. Similarly, Indians invented Algebra which was acquired by Arabs and spread to the western Europe. Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya further contributed in the development of Algebra and trigonometry. 

2. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the 2nd century BC. It was considered a separate numeral. The Arabs learnt the use of zero and then spread it to Europe. 

3. Aryabhatt calculated the positions of the planets. He discovered the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses. He measured the circumference of the Earth. He said that the Earth rotates around the Sun rather than vice-versa. He wrote Aryabhatiya. 

4. In the book Brihat Samhita, Varahmihir said that the Moon rotated around the Earth and Earth rotated around the Sun. 

5. In the field of medicine, Sushruta and Charak were prominent surgeons and physicians respectively. While Sushruta in his book Sushruta Samhita gives detailed description about the method of operating cataract, stoned diseases and many implements to be used for surgery, the Charak Samhita discusses various types of diseases and prescribes medicines for their cure. 

6. The drainage system and town planning adopted by the Harappans clearly show that they had knowledge of measurement and geometry. Sulba Sutras provides early examples of geometry. It provides precise methods to construct altars. Aryabhatt formulated a method for calculating the area of a triangle which led to the origin of trigonometry. The ancient Indians developed temple building engineering. The marvellous Ellora temples and Kailashnath temple which have been carved out from the single rock is an example of extraordinary engineering feat. 

7. The Lokayat philosophy provided by the Charvak argued that what is not experienced by man through his sensory organ does not really exist. Thus, he repudiated the existence of god. Similarly, philosophy of Sankhya was propounded by Kapil Muni. According to him, the soul can get liberation only through real knowledge which can be acquired through perception, inference and hearing. 

8. Indians developed the art of dyeing, the lasting colour is found in the paintings of Ajanta. 

9.Indians developed great expertise in the art of making steel. The iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) did not rust even after the lapse of 1600 years. 

10.Kanad Rishi devises the atomic theory. He speculated about the existence of small indestructible particles much like an atom. He further held that atoms of the same substance combined with each other in a specific and synchronous manner  produced dviyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (Triatomic molecules). 

11. India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process. This led to the making of bronze alloy by the mixing of tin with zinc. 

Decline of Science and Technology in India 

The science and technology declined after the onset of Muslim rule in India. The Sultanate period and thereafter, the Mughal period saw the growth of orthodox elements in the society. The Muslim religious leaders like Ulema, Mullah and Maulavi increased religiosity in the society. Among Hindus, the Bhakti movement took its root. The religious leaders like Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, Vallabhacharya, Nanak, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai spread the Bhakti cult in India. Thus, the ecosystem of science and technology was relegated to the background. Religious orthodoxy took precedence over logic and scientific temper. Moreover, the progressive and learned Brahamanas were denied privileges like land grants during the Muslim rule and so their creativity was stifled. The status of education further deteriorated during the period. And thus, India lagged behind in science and technology in the mediaeval period.  It was only after the second half of the British rule that science and scientific studies were given importance. Thus, the scientists like J C Bose, C V Raman, Homi Jehangir Bhabha,  Srinivasa Ramanujan, Vikram Sarabhai, Satyendra Nath Bose and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar were produced in India who made marks in the field of science and technology. 

Powers and Functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha.

 

Why is it in the news ?

1.After the general election, there is a provision to elect a member of Lok Sabha as the Speaker from amongst its members. The election of the Speaker is scheduled on 26th June 2024. Before the election of the Speaker, Bhartruhari Mehtab was appointed as pro-tem speaker by the President of India.  His function would be to administer oath/ affirmation to the newly elected members of the 18th Lok Sabha and to conduct the election of new Speaker. 

2.Although there is no provision of the pro-tem Speaker in the constitution, the handbook on the working on Parliamentary affairs mentions appointment and swearing-in of pro-tem Speaker. By convention, it is the senior most MP who has served maximum terms in the Lok Sabha should be appointed as the pro-tem Speaker. Congress objected to the appointment of Mr. Mehtab who is the seven time member of Lok Sabha. While K. Suresh from the Congress is the eighth time member of Lok Sabha.  Congress alleges that the convention of appointing MP with maximum terms in Lok Sabha has been thus broken. 

Election of the Speaker - 

1.According to article 93, Lok Sabha chooses Speaker and Deputy Speaker from among its members. All the Speakers in the independent India have been elected unopposed. 

2.The Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha by simple majority. He can be removed by the effective majority of members of the Lok Sabha, present and voting. This means that according to article 92 of the constitution, the Speaker can be removed by an effective majority +1. Effective majority means total strength minus vacancies. For example, if the Lok Sabha has a total strength of 550 members and if there are 7 vacancies, the effective strength would be 543 members. In order to remove the Speaker 271+1 = 272 members must vote against him. But prior to moving the resolution for the removal of the Speaker, a 14 days advance notice must be issued to him to this effect. Normally, a ruling party member is elected as Speaker. But during the period of coalition government, a member from other parties can also be elected as the Speaker. 

3.The Speaker can also be removed on being disqualified from being a Lok Sabha member under section 7 and 8 of the Representation of People’s Act, 1951. 

4.He can also tender his resignation on his own to the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

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Power and Functions of the Speaker-

1.He enforces discipline and decorum in the House. 

2.He decides the agenda for Parliamentary meetings.

3.He permits motions such as adjournments, no confidence and censure. 

4.He ensures quorum (the presence of 1/10th members of the House) of the House. If quorum is not available, he adjourns the House.

5.He has the power to punish members who indulge in unruly behaviours. 

6.He constitutes several committees like business advisory committee, rules committee and general purpose committee and these committees work under his supervision. 

7.He is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its committees and members. It is his sole privilege to refer a question of the breach of privilege to the Committee of Privilege for proper inquiry and report. 

8.The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha Secretariat. He manages the administrative and security arrangements of the Parliament complex. 

9. He is the sole authority to decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. 

10.In case of deadlock between two Houses in respect of ordinary bills, he is empowered to preside over the joint sitting of Parliament under article 108 of our constitution. 

11.In the case of Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachilhu, 1993, the Supreme Court of India held that the decision of the presiding officer is not final and is subject to judicial review on the basis of malafide and perversity. 

12.In Nabam Rabia vs Deputy Speaker case,2016, the Supreme Court of India held that the Speaker will be disabled from deciding disqualification petition under anti defection law, if notice for his removal is pending. 

13. Similarly, in 2023, the Supreme Court in Subhash Desai vs Principal Secretary, Governor of Maharashtra case, 2023, directed the Maharashtra assembly Speaker to set a timeline for the disqualification of the MLAs. 

14. Similarly, in 1994, the Supreme Court of India held that a majority can be tested only on the floor of assembly and not otherwise. 

Speakers of Lok Sabha 1.G V Mavlankar - 15 May 1952 to 27th February 1956. 2.M A Ayyangar - 8th March 1956 to 10th May 1957, 11th May 1957 to 16th April 1962. 3.Sardar Hukam Singh - 17th April 1962 to 16th March 1967 4.Neelam Sanjiv Reddy - 17th March 1967 to 19th  July 1969 5.Gurdayal Singh Dhillon - 8th August 1969 to 19th March 1971, 22nd March 1971 to 1st December 1975. 6.Baliram Bhagat - 15th January 1976 to 25th March 1977. 7.Neelam Sanjiva Reddy - 26th March 1977 to 13th July 1977. 8. K S Hegde - 21st July 1977 to 21st January 1980. 9.Balram Jakhar - 22nd January 1980 to 15th January 1985, 16th January 1985 to 18th December 1989. 10.Ravi Rai - 19th December 1989 to 9th July 1991. 11.Shivraj Patil - 10th July 1991 to 22nd May 1996. 12.P A Sangma - 23rd May 1996 to 23rd March 1998. 13.GMC Balayogi - 18th March 1998 to 19th October 1999, 22nd October 1999 to 3rd March 2002. 14.Manohar Joshi - 10th May 2002 to 2nd June 2004. 15.Somnath Chatterji - 4th June 2004 to 30th May 2009.  16. Mira Kumar - 30th May 2009 to 4th June 2014. 17. Sumitra Mahajan - 6th June 2014 to 16th June 2019. 18.Om Birla - 18th June 2019 to till date.

Important issues associated with the office of the Speaker  -

1.It is alleged that the Speaker favours his party men in Lok Sabha. 

2.He misuses discretionary powers while deciding money bills and political defections.

3.He is also criticised for restricting debates and discussions to favour the ruling party. 

4.He is also charged with putting party interest above national interest. 

5.He is also accused of adopting the tactics of gerrymandering to favour  the ruling party by putting bills on vote without discussion in the Parliament. 

6.He is also accused of putting a bill on vote without sending it to the select committee for proper discussion and deliberation by the opposition parties. For example, three farm laws were passed by the Lok Sabha in hurry and when the farmers agitated for one year long, the Government had to withdraw the bill. 

The Independence and impartiality of the Speaker -

1.Our constitution has secured the independence and impartiality of the Speaker by giving him a security of tenure. This means that the resolution for his removal can be moved in the Lok Sabha only after the support of 50 members and a 14 days advance notice to this effect. 

2.Secondly, his salaries and allowances are charged upon the consolidated fund of India and are therefore, non votable in the Parliament. 

3.His powers to regulate the procedure of conducting business in the Lok Sabha cannot be subject to judicial review. 

4.He cannot vote in the Lok Sabha but in case of tie, he has the right to cast his vote. 

5.In the order of precedence, he is placed at the sixth rank along with the chief justice of India and is thus above cabinet ministers except the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister.

Way Forward

1.The Speaker is a bridge between the government and the opposition. He is duty bound to uphold democratic process by ensuring adequate space both to the ruling party and the opposition parties. Once elected as the Speaker, he should resign his parent party and should work as neutral referee in the House like the Speaker of the House of the commons in Britain. In matters relating to disqualification of a member from the House under the anti-defection law (under tenth schedule) and in deciding a particular bill as a money bill, he should show non- partisanship. 

2.It is his primary duty that bills introduced by the Government must be adequately discussed in the House so that there should not be any lacunae left. And therefore, the bills should be referred to the select committee for proper deliberation. But this trend has been reversed in the previous Lok Sabha. The numbers of referred bills to select committees have declined from 71% during 2009-14 to 16% during 2019-24. 

3.The Speaker should also refrain from suspending large scale MPs. In the 17th Lok Sabha, the Speaker suspended more than 150 MPs. This is not a good sign of healthy democracy. After all, democracy is a government of deliberations and discussions. 

Conclusion

1.Parliamentary debates and deliberations are guided by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 

2.He should set the highest standard in public life by working in a non-partisan way. 

3. Since he is one of the pillars of parliamentary democracy in India, he should be above party politics and should strengthen the democratic process in India.  

Social Changes in Mughal Period (1526-1740 AD)

 

Introduction

1. Babur established the Mughal dynasty in 1526 AD by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat and also defeated Rana Sangha, Medini Rai, and Afghans.

2. The Mughal dynasty continued till 1857 but its effectiveness declined after 1740 AD.

3. During the Mughal period almost all parts of India up to Hindu Kush mountain was integrated.

4. The growth of Political integration was paralleled by cultural integration. 

5. Indian society developed a more or less unified culture despite differences in race, religion, and language. 

6. The period was also marked by economic development and growth. Trade and manufacturing expanded. There was expansion and improvement in cultivation. 

7. The 17th century witnessed great strides in Gujarat, Coromandel coast and Bengal.

Mutual harmony and toleration

1. During this period because of the Bhakti and Sufi movement, gradual understanding of fundamental tenets of Hinduism and Islam developed.

2. Bhakti saints laid emphasis on true faith rather than to formal observance. 

3. There was a setback to the growth of rational sciences. Similarly, India lagged behind in the development of the navy. Watch Full Video In Hindi On Youtube By Clicking On The Icon🔻

Social changes 

1. Caste continued to dominate. 

2. The Bhakti movement and Nath Panthi yogis could hardly make a dent in it.

3. Brahmins continued to claim privileged positions for themselves including the exclusive right to preach and educate.

4. Brahmins acquiesced in the advocacy of path of devotion as a way of salvation of all castes specially for Shudras.

5. Position of women worsened. 

6. There was no right to Hindu women for remarriage or share in their father’s property while muslim women could inherit property of their father. The Hindu women could claim only stree dhan (wedding gifts) from their parents. 

7. The ruling class remained strongly aristocratic in character.

8. There was less opportunities for people of lower classes to go on the higher scale. 

9. Because of the less opportunities of war, now the Rajput caste started giving primacy over descent instead of military achievement. The open ended Rajput caste became closed. 

10. During this period, a large number of tribals were Hinduised. 

An unequal society

1. Almost all foreign accounts tell us that India was rich and wealthy. Its ruling class led an ostentatious lifestyle while the ordinary people like peasants, artisans and labourers were suffering from acute poverty.

2. Peasants and lower classes had no sufficient clothes to cover their bodies,

3. Common People went on bare footed.

4. The ruling class consisted of the emperor and his scions, kings, nobility  and zamindars. They were a privileged class. 

5. Mughal nobles were drawn from central Asia, Iran, Khurasan and Afghanistan

6. During the period of Akbar, Hindu nobility formed 16% while during the period of Aurangzeb, Hindus nobility constituted 33%. 

7. Muslim and Hindu nobles kept a large number of women in their Harem. 

8. Polygamy became common among nobility and zamindars. 

9. The Mughal nobility constituted a composite ruling class representing different regions and religions. There were two kinds of nobles in the Mughal court - foreigners and indigenous.  Among the foreign nobles they were divided into Irani who were drawn from Iran and Turani who were drawn from central Asia. Among Hindu nobles, Rajputs of northern India and Marathas of Deccan constituted two important powerful groups in the Mughal court. 

10. Rapid growth in the number of nobility during the 17th century led to the crisis of the jagirdari system. 

11. The rural areas were dominated by zamindars. 

12. In addition to their own zamindari, they had the right to collect land revenue and the commission for collecting taxes  went up to 25%.

13. Peasants had hereditary rights in land and they could not be dispossessed from land as long as they paid the land revenue. 

14. So, peasants and zamindars had their own hereditary rights in lands. 

15. There were also numerous Rajas or kings who had accepted the sovereignty of Mughals in lieu of a fixed amount of annual homage to the Mughal emperor .

16. These Rajas or kings collected land revenue in their areas and had sufficient internal autonomy.

Middle class 

1. Because of the relative peace during the Mughal period, India had large number of rich traders and merchants. 

2. In addition, small Mansabdars, shop keepers, professionals like Hakim, musicians, artists, historians, scholars, Qazis, theologians, government officers formed the middle class.

3. The religious divines, scholars were granted small tracts of land for their maintenance and these grants were called Madad-e-mass. These land grants were often hereditary while the government officers were paid in cash.

Policy of Akbar

1. Mughal period saw harmonisation of relationship between Hindus and Muslims. 

2. Akbar abolished Jizya, pilgrimage tax, ban on prisoners of war to convert into Islam.

3. The Sati system was abolished by Akbar but with little success. 

4. Ban on child marriages but with no tangible results.

5. The policy of Sulah-Kul (conciliation to all) proved beneficial to the Hindu-Muslim unity.

6. Rajput policy further strengthened the harmony between Hindu and Muslim.

7. Rajput leaders became the solid rock behind the Mughal empire.

Policy of Aurangzeb

1. He re-imposed Jizya, toll tax, converted prisoners of wars into Islam  and destroyed many temples.

2. He gave rebates to Muslim traders in custom duties. While the Muslim traders were charged only 2.5 % custom duties, the Hindu traders were charged 5% on merchandise.

3. He annexed the Shia state of Bijapur and Golconda. 

4. He fought against Shivaji and was reluctant to give Marathas the local autonomy or watan (homeland).

5. He got killed Sambhaji, which led to the recurrent revolts among Marathas against Mughals. 

6. He suppressed Jat and Satnami revolts.  

7. He got killed Guru Teg Bahadur and four sons of Guru Govind Singh, and thereby alienated Sikhs from Mughals.

8. He Reversed the Rajput Policy of Akbar. And this was one of the reasons for the alienation of Hindus from the Mughals. 

Conclusion

1. The Mughal period saw harmony among Hindus and Muslims. But during the reign of Aurangzeb, this harmony was disrupted. 

2. India was the biggest economy of the world in 1700 AD but the society was very much unequal .

3. While the zamindars and nobles led the life of luxuries, common people eked out their livelihood with great difficulties.

4. In most of the cases, they could not earn more than Rs.5 per month. 

5. Overall, the society was peaceful and harmonious. 

6. Mughals did not face large scale revolts like during the sultanate period before the reign of Aurangzeb.

7. The reign of Aurangzeb saw large number of revolts by Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Afghans, Satnamis. 

8. The disharmony created by fanatic Aurangzeb led to the downfall of the Mughal empire and in 1739 by the attack of Nadir Shah, the Mughals were exposed to the world.

9. While the trade and manufactures continued to expand during the 18th century, in spite of the downfall of the Mughal Empire, it remained backward not only in the field of science and the technology but in size also. The craftsmen used simple tools and therefore. their efficiency remained low. Because of the concentration of wealth among zamindars, nobles and the emperors, the artisans and craftsmen could not become entrepreneurs like in Europe. The domestic market was limited and artisans and craftsmen had to be dependent upon merchants and traders.  Secondly, the skill of Indian artisans and availability in abundance inhibited efforts to develop and apply machine power to productive enterprises.  This resulted in low productivity. 

10. The Mughal period heralded cultural integration in India. They developed a unified culture despite differences in race, religion, ethnicity and language. This unified culture was reflected in an outburst of creative activity. However, this integrated culture came under pressure on account of attacks from the orthodox elements of Hinduism and Islam. On the whole, this cultural unity between Hindus and Muslims continued till the 19th century when people of both religious groups fought against British rule in the 1857 Revolt.  

Voting behaviour of different castes in 2024 general elections of India

 Introduction

1.Ours is a caste ridden society. Castes play an important role in shaping the voting behaviour of the people. In normal times, it is caste which makes or breaks the government. But in abnormal situations, people vote overriding the primordial loyalties like castes, communities and religion. 

2.In 2024 General Election for the Lok Sabha, a general trend is visible across the country. The upper castes voted overwhelmingly for NDA led by BJP while Muslims and Dalits by and large voted for Congress and India alliance. 

3.In Karnataka, 22% upper caste voted for Congress and 71% for NDA. The dominant Vokalinga votes were split between NDA and Congress, 56% and 44% respectively. 

4.The 76% of  the dominant Lingayat voted for NDA, while only 20% voted for Congress. 2/3rd (66%) dalits voted for Congress and 1/3rd (33%) for NDA. 44% Adivasi voted for Congress, 56% for NDA. 92% Muslims voted for Congress and only 8% for NDA.  Thus, the Congress got only 9 seats and NDA 19 seats out of the total 28 seats in Karnataka. 

5.In Haryana, Congress and BJP got 5 seats each out of the total 10 seats. 

6.The dominant Jat community voted overwhelmingly for Congress (64%) and only 27% for BJP. The share of the Upper caste was 66% for BJP and 30% for Congress. The votes of OBC were split between Congress and BJP, 51% and 44% respectively. Congress made a dent into the OBC votes of BJP. 68% scheduled caste voted for Congress and only 24% voted for BJP. 

7.In Rajasthan,Out of total 25 seats,  the BJP won 14 seats and the Congress won eight seats. The Communist Party of India (Marxist), the Rashtriya Loktantrik Party and the Bharat Adivasi Party each won one seat.

8.The 26% upper caste voted for Congress led India alliance and 65% voted for BJP. 

9.The 39 % OBC voted for India alliance and 59% for BJP, 46% Dalits voted for Congress and 37% voted for BJP. 40% Adivasis voted India Alliance and 46% Adivasis voted for BJP. 68% Muslims voted for Congress and only 14% voted for BJP. From the above data it is clear that OBC votes, Dalit votes and adivasi votes split between the Congress led India alliance and BJP. While the upper caste Hindus voted overwhelmingly for BJP, the Muslims voted for the India alliance. 

10.In Delhi, 71% upper caste, 58% OBC and 49% Dalit voted for BJP. While only 14% upper caste, 19% OBC, 20% Dalit and 34% Muslims voted for Congress. 12% upper caste, 20% OBC, 28% dalit, 49 % Muslims. Thus, there was a clear divide. While the upper castes and obc voted overwhelmingly for BJP, the dalit vote was split between the India alliance and the BJP in equal measures. As usual , 83% Muslims voted for the India alliance. People were satisfied with the performance of the central government. The arrest of Kejriwal did not cut ice with the voters. That’s why, the BJP swept all the seven seats.

11. In Chhattisgarh, BJP cornered 10 out of 11 seats in the 2024 election. This was because 74% upper castes, 56% OBCs and 59% Dalits and 41% Adivasis voted for BJP. 

12. In Gujarat, 71% upper caste, 80% Patidar, 58% Kshatriya, 68% OBC, 54% Dalits, 49% Adivasi and 29% Muslims voted for BJP. The Congress got 25% votes of upper castes, 6% votes of Patidar, 39%votes of Kshatriya, 23% vote of OBC, 46% votes of Dalits, 41% votes of Adivasi and 59% votes of Muslims. Thus, votes of dalits and adivasi more or less vertically divided between Congress and BJP while Muslim voted for congress overwhelmingly, upper caste Patidar, Kshatriya and OBCs voted overwhelmingly for BJP. That’s why, BJP cornered 25 out of 26 seats in Gujarat. 

13.In Punjab also, 56% upper caste Hindus voted for BJP. Every third urban voter voted for the BJP. Sikh OBCs were mainly divided between the Congress and the AAP. The BJP did not open its account in Punjab. Out of the 13 seats, Congress won 7 seats, AAP 3 seats, SAD 1 seat and Independents 2 seats. 

14.In Uttar Pradesh, Upper Castes 16% voted for the India alliance and 79% for the NDA. 82% Yadav voted for India and 15% for NDA. 61% Kurmi Koiri voted for NDA and 34% INDIA alliance. 59% OBCs voted for NDA and 34% for INDIA. 25% Jatav voted for India, 24% for NDA and 44% for BSP. Non Jatav Dalits overwhelmingly supported the INDIA alliance (56%) while 92% Muslims voted for the INDIA alliance.  Thus, 13% Jatavs of UP who were the staunch supporters of BSP, got split. Although half of the Jatavs still remained with BSP, half of them split between NDA and India.  Unemployment, inflation, paper leaks were important factors that made a dent into the BJP votes. So out of 80 seats Samajwadi Party got 37 seats while Congress got 6 seats. 

15.In Bihar, out of 40 seats NDA got 30 seats. India alliance got 9 seats (RJD 4, Congress 3, CPI ML 2) Independent 1. 53% Upper caste, 67 % Koiri + Kurmi, 26% Yadav, 54% other OBC, 65 % Dusadh/ Pasi, 58 % other scheduled caste and 12% Muslims voted for NDA. While 10 %  upper caste, 19% Koeri and Kurmi, 73% Yadavs, 14% other OBC, 35 % Dusadh/ Pasi, 42% other scheduled castes and 87% Muslims voted for INDIA Alliance. Thus, other OBC, Dusadh/Pasi, Koeri and Kurmi tilted in favour of the NDA alliance. 

16.In Telangana, out of 17 seats both the Congress and the BJP won 8 seats each and was won by Asaduddin Owasi. 53% upper castes, 42% OBC, 24% scheduled castes , 29% scheduled tribes, 4% Muslims voted for BJP. While 29% upper caste, 38% OBC, 45% scheduled caste, 58 % scheduled tribes, 33 % Muslims voted for Congress. The vote share of the BRS dropped to 17% in the Lok Sabha election from 38% in the assembly election in the last year. There has been a massive shift in OBC and upper caste votes to the BJP. This vote shift has come from the BRS. Thus it was a major setback for the Congress Party which won a thumping majority in the recently held assembly election. 

17.In Madhya Pradesh, all 29 seats were cornered by BJP. And completely decimated Congress. 72% of the upper caste, 63% upper OBCs, 71% lower OBCs, 53% Dalits and 70% Adivasis voted for BJP. Thus the vote share of BJP went up to 59% while the Congress got only 32% votes. Poor organisational structure, lack of effective leadership and clear cut ideology eroded the vote percentage of Congress Party in Madhya Pradesh. 

18. In Andhra Pradesh, the formidable alliance of Telugu Desam, Jana Sena of Pawan Kalyan and BJP decimated the YSR Congress Party led by Jagan Mohan Reddy.  The NDA Alliance swept the assembly election and YSR CP was reduced to only 11 seats in state assembly of 175 seats and 4 seats in Lok Sabha (25 seats) about 55% upper castes, 62% Reddy, 32% Kamma, 44% Golla and Kuruma, 23.8% Goud, 53.5% Muslims, 55.6% Christians, 47.7% Mala voted for YSR Congress Party. While the NDA Alliance got more than 60% vote share of Goud, Kammas and Kapus, More than 50% vote share of OBCs, Madigas and Malas. More than half of the voters below 25 years and 2/3rd of the voters between 26 and 35 age group voted overwhelmingly for INDIA Alliance. 

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Conclusion

1.In 2024 General election, BJP got 240 seats and along with NDA partners it reached 293. Congress got 99 seats and along with INDIA Alliance, it crossed 234 seats. In the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh , Uttarakhand , Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, it got dismal performance. Even in the Congress ruled states of Karnataka and Telangana, it did not show effective strength. 

2.BJP did not get a full majority on its own because it did not perform well in the states of UP and Maharashtra. The Congress did well in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra capturing 13 seats and INDIA alliance got 30 seats, 17 seats by NDA and 1 seat by Independent.  

3.2024 general election showed upper castes and OBCs other than Yadavs rallied behind NDA while Muslims and Dalits supported Congress and INDIA Alliance. 

4.Wherever, there was a split of votes dalit and adivasi, NDA swept the poll. INDIA Alliance must focus upon dalits, adivasis, OBCs and Muslims in order to get electoral advantage in the next election. Since the upper caste is by and large solidly behind the BJP and NDA alliance in northern India and a major chunk of OBCs other than Yadavs support NDA alliance, it would be the Prime Focus of India alliance to make dent into the OBC votes. If it wants to capture power at the centre and states in northern India.