Introduction
During a span 300 years, 5 dynasties like Slaves, Khiljis, Tuglaqs, Sayyids and Lodhis ruled over India
Foreign Muslims Like Turks and Afghans monopolised
The Indian Muslims were denied high offices under Sultanate
The division among foreign Muslims further led to regular rivalries among them
Indian Muslims did not get high posts during the sultanate period. Nor they had participation in the administration
Important classes among Muslims
Muslims soldiers were graded into Khans, Maliks, Amirs, Sipah Salars and Sarikhels
Khan was supreme and Sari Khel was lowest position
Muslims lived in towns. They did not prefer villages.
The lowest cadre consisted of artisans, shop keepers, clerks and petty businessmen
Ulema had great influence in Muslim society, politics, administrations and religion
Sufi saints also held an honourable position in Muslim society
The condition of Hindus
Hindus were deprived of employment in the military and civil services of the Sultanate
The discriminatory Turkish regime forced the Hindus to make their castes more rigid. Child marriage and Parda system emerged in Hindu Society. Widow remarriage was prohibited except in lower castes.
Lives of Hindus were miserable. Their religion and honour were at stake.
In rural areas, Khuts, Muqaddams and Choudharies were local Hindu Zamindars. They were socially and economically powerful in rural areas.
Allauddin Khilji broke the bones of these local Zamindars by levying high taxes and confiscation of their lands so that they could not rise in revolt
Hindus were called zimmies or protected people. They had to pay Jaziya.
Women, Children, Brahmins were exempted from Jajiya but Firoz levied jaziya from Brahmins also.
During the early period before the arrival of muslims. Brahmins and Rajputs formed privileged sections of society. Now they were replaced by Turks, Iranians, Afghans and a small group of Indian muslims. Ulema and Muslims theologians also formed the privileged group.
Conversions to Islam took place on account of economic advantage.
Prisoners of war were lured to get converted into Islam in lieu of remission in sentences.
Sufi saints also attracted lower caste Hindus to get converted into Islam.
In Spite of Islamic character of the sultanate, Hindus celebrated festivals with impunity.
Society was aristocratic and militaristic in character
The nature of the state was Islamic. All the sultans except Allauddin Khilji, proclaimed the lieutenant of Khalifa.
Society was dominated by in narrow clique of military leaders
Sultans divided the sultanate into Iqtas (piece of land). These Iqtas were headed by military officers called Muqtis or Walis. Muqtis were paid out of the revenue of Iqtas and surplus were to be deposited before the central government.
These Muqtis could be transferred from one Iqta to another Iqta by Sultans. They were enjoined to keep a large number of armies commensurate with their revenue earnings and armies were paid in cash.
Firoz Tuglaq made these Muqtis hereditaries, thereby weakening the central government and started the practice of giving land grants to soldiers in lieu of salaries.
Thus, we see that in contrast to the earlier period when brahmins and military officers were given land grants in perpetuity in lieu of salaries and privileges, during the sultanate period Muqtis could be transferred from one Iqta to another Iqta and soldiers were paid in cash.
Hindus and Muslims upper classes did not have much social intercourse between them.
The Muslim society was divided into ethnic and racial groups. The Turks, Iranians, Afghan and Indian Muslims rarely married each other. In fact, these sections developed some caste exclusiveness of the Hindus. Converts from lower sections of Hindus were also discriminated against.
The Sultanate period was marked by a society of great inequalities.
The Muslim mobility led a life of great ostentation while the masses in towns and countryside lived simple life.
Allaudin Khilji paid 238 tankas per year to a soldier having one horse and additional 78 tankas with another horse.
The leading ministers during Muhammad Tuglaq got 40 thousand tanka a year. The sadr was getting 60 thousand tanka a year, the wazir of Firoz Tuglaq got 15 lakh tanka per year. It is estimated that the cost of living for a family in the time of Firoz Tuglaq was around 5 tanka per month. But the wages of an artisan were not more than 2 tanka per month.
Practice of slavery
Firoj Tuglaq gathered 1 lakh 80 thousand slaves to be employed for production of handicrafts, some of them also employed as bodyguards.
In ancient and early mediaeval India slaves were only employed for domestic work but now they have been employed for productive works.
Condition of peasantry and local zamindars
Allauddin Khilji charged half of the produce after the measurement of land in the Doab area. The taxes were to be collected in cash.
During the Rajput period, the tax was one sixth of the produce.
In addition, cess and forced labour was exacted from peasantry
Allauddin Khilji destroyed the privileges of local Hindu Zamindars.
However, after the death of Allauddin Khilji, these local zamindars resumed their previous privileges.
Conclusion
An Islamic state;
Promulgation of Sharia laws;
Destruction of temples;
Levy of Jizya on Hindus;
Supremacy of Ulemas in matters relating to administrations and religion, justice;
Aristocracy among Muslim nobles;
Beginning of Iqtas;
Doing away with feudalism;
Hindus started practising child marriage and Parda system because of the fear of Muslim inroads into their society;
Local zamindars, Rajput kings never reconciled with the discriminating rule of the sultanate;
During the later half of the reign of Mohammad Tuglaq, Hamir dev established his own Rajput kingdom by defeating the army of Mohammad Tuglaq;
Harihar and Bukka established Vijay Nagar kingdom in 1336 AD by defeating the army of Mohammad Tuglaq.
Similarly , Muslim leaders in Deccan established the Bahamani kingdom under Bahaman Shah. Bengal and Odisha also declared independence from the Sultanate.
