Social changes in ancient India

 Introduction

1.Ancient Indian society was not a static society. It underwent social changes in different phases.

2.The British historians deliberately pointed out that Indian society never witnessed any change in its long history of 3000 years. Charles Metcalf said that when nothing seemed to last, these village communities in India lasted forever.

Indus Valley Civilisation

It was a bronze age culture. Town planning and drainage system was excellent. Trade and commerce thrived. But we have not deciphered their script. So, we cannot confidently describe their social organisation. However, the excavations at different sites indicate that the citadel was the locality where the ruling class lived. The middle settlement was meant for bureaucrats and merchants, the lower parts of the town was meant for common people. Temples have not been found in the Indus civilization, as we find in the Babylonian civilization.  Thus, scholars are of the view that a class of merchants ruled over the area in Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. After the decline of Indus Civilisation, around 1700 BC, India did not witness urban centres for the next 1000 years. It was only around 600 BC that urban centres sprang up in north India.   

Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)

1.Kinship was the basis of the social structure.

2.They were pastoral, moving from one place to another along with their cows and cattle. 

3.The concept of territory did not evolve because there is no mention of the term Janpada in the Rig Veda.

4.Family was a very large joint unit. It was a patriarchal family headed by the father.

5.Women could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands.

6.The institution of marriage was established but there was also the practice of widow remarriage and levirate (niyog).

7.Gradually the tribal society was divided into three occupational groups. They were warriors, priests and common people. The fourth division called Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period. 

8.Women were employed for domestic purposes. Slaves were not directly used in agriculture or other productive activities.

9.Differentiation based on occupation was not very sharp. 

Later Vedic Period (1000 BC - 600 BC)

1.Later Vedic Society came to be divided into the four varnas. They were Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. 

2.Brahmin conducts rituals and sacrifices for their clients and kings. They prayed for the success of their patron in war and in return the king pledged  to support them. Both Brahmin and Kshatriya fought for supremacy but when they had to deal with Vaishyas and Shudras, they set aside their differences and crushed the disobedience or revolt of the Vaishya or Shudras.

3.Kshatriyas were assigned the duties to protect the people. During this period, the king had to depend upon the voluntary gift of the people called Bali. Since the economy was not a surplus one, the king could not collect taxes on a regular basis.  

4.Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Towards the end of the later Vedic period, they began to do trade and commerce. 

5.All the three upper varnas were called dwija (twice born) because they had to undergo upnayan or investiture ceremony with the sacred thread. The fourth Varna called Shudras were deprived of sacred thread ceremony and recitation of gayatri mantra. Similarly, women were also denied the recital of gayatri mantra and upnayan ceremony. 

6.Among the Shudras, Rathakar or chariot makers were given higher status because in those days battles were fought by chariots drawn by horses. This practice continued till the Mauryan period.

7.The power of the father increased who could disinherit his son. The right of primogeniture was established. The position of women deteriorated. The institution of Gotra was established in the later vedic period. The people of the same gotra could not marry among themselves  so the strict rule of Gotra exogamy was enforced. 

8.Ashramas or four stages of life like Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa were not well established during this period. Sanyasa or ascetic life developed after the later vedic period during the age of Buddhas in 600 BC. 

Age of Buddha (600 BC - 320 BC)  

1.The social differentiation became very much pronounced. Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras were assigned well defined functions. Brahmanas demanded various privileges like exemption from taxation and punishment. The Kshatriyas ranked second in the varna hierarchy. They lived on the taxes collected from the peasants. Their main function was to fight and to govern the people. 

2.The vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and commerce. They had to bear the brunt of taxation collected by the king. 

3.The shudras were meant to serve the three higher varnas. They worked as domestic slaves, agricultural slaves, craftsmen and hired labourers. 

4.The society became very hierarchical. The higher the Varna, the more privileged the person was.

5.The vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices hampered the progress of new agriculture and therefore, the vaishyas very much detested the animal sacrifices and supremacy of Brahmanas.  Similarly, Kshatriyas protested very much against the various privileges enjoyed by Brahmanas. The scholars are of the view that the reaction of Kshatriyas against the Brahmin domination led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in north India. Both Mahavir and Gautam Budhha came from Kshatriya Varna. Buddhism gave the kshatriyas the highest place in the varna hierarchy above the Brahmanas. 

6.The rise of the Magadha empire at the cost of other Mahajanapadas in the sixth century  BC under the leadership of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru further strengthened the position of the Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. 

7. But in the republics like Vaishali and Shakyas, Brahamanas had no importance in governance.

8.The Indian legal and judicial system originated and developed during this period. Dharma Sutras define the duties of each of the four varnas. The civil and criminal laws came to be based upon varna division. All forms of disabilities were imposed upon shudras. Crimes committed against Brahamanas were severely punished but when Brahamanas committed crime they were given light punishment.

9. During this period, a theory was developed that Brahamanas were created from the mouth, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from thighs and Shudras from the feet  of the lord Brahma. During this period social stratification strengthened very much. Shudras were not allowed to dine with upper varnas. Inter-marriage among four varnas was prohibited. The shudras could not be appointed to the high post in the government. The civil and criminal punishment became very harsh. Tit for tat was the common method for the punishment.  

Mauryan Period (300 BC - 300 AD)

1.Kautilya advises the king to promulgate dharma because the king was the protector of dharma. This means that no varna should be allowed to deviate from their assigned duties. Nobody should encroach upon the four stages of life (Ashram).

2.The policy of Ashoka was very much resented by the Brahamanas because he prohibited killings of birds, animals and sacrifices. 

3.Ashoka appointed Rajukas and Dharma Mahamatras to govern the people on the basis of vyavhar samta (equality in criminal law) and danda samta (equality in civil law) for all varnas. The entire Dharma sutras compiled by Brahmanas were based upon varna discrimination. And so, the privileges enjoyed by Brahamanas were curtailed by the emperor Ashoka. Scholars are of the view that because of the Brahmanical reaction, Pushyamitra Shunga, a brahmin,  killed the last Mauryan king Brihdatta in the broad public view and established the Shunga dynasty. Later on, in the western deccan Satvahanas established their rule. They were brahmins.  They performed vedic sacrifices on the large scale and donated land grants to brahmanas.   

4.Since 200 BC onwards several invasions of India happened. The Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians, the Kushanas and the Indo-Sassanians entered into India and became an integral part of Indian society. They were Indianised. They had no separate ideology or religion and so they were assimilated in Indian society. They lost their identity. Since they had come as invaders, they were placed as Kshatriyas.

5.In the Deccan, Satavahanas established their rule and extended their kingdom to Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Originally they have been deccani tribes but they were brahamanised. They performed many ashwamedha yagya. The Satavahanas showed the traces of matrilineal social structure; it was customary for their king to be named after their mother like Gautamipurta or Vashishti Putra. This means that mothers, particularly the women, enjoyed higher status in the society. The queens exercised power and acted as regents in case of minor kings. However, the Satavahanas society was patriarchal and succession passed through the male members. 

6.The Satvahanas started giving tax free villages to Brahamanas and the Buddhist monks. The granted villages could not be intruded by police or other royal officers.  This led to the autonomous region within the kingdom. The feudatories became powerful and thus we see that society became graded. The king was at the top while the second grade was enjoyed by Mahabhoj, the big feudatories and the third grade by Senapati. 

Sangam age in the South (300 BC- 300 AD)

1.Three kingdoms of the Chola with its capital at Uraiyur, Pandya with its capital at Madurai and Chera with its capital at Muziris sprang up in the far south.

2.Brahmins enjoyed a powerful position in the Sangam kingdoms. Unlike the Brahmins of North India, they ate meat and drank wine. 

3.The rich peasants called Vellalas occupied civil and military offices in both the kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas. The ruling class had a matrimonial relationship with Vellalas. These Vellalas held the bulk of the Tamil land. The rich peasants did not plough themselves but employed the labourers to cultivate their lands. 

4.There was great social inequality. While the rich lived in the houses made of brick and mortar, the poor lived in thatched houses. 

5.Since the three Sangam aged kingdoms fought among themselves, the war booty was the main source of livelihood and the warrior class enjoyed special status in the Sangam society. 

Gupta Period (319 AD -550 AD )

1.Large scale land grants to Brahamanas made them the most powerful during the Gupta period. They claimed many privileges and amassed huge wealth.The practice of land grants to government officials in lieu of salaries further eroded the authority of the Gupta kings. This practice of land grants to brahmanas and government officials led to the rise of landlordism in northern India and devolution of the central authority.  

2.The proliferation of the caste into numerous subcastes occurred during this period because of the infiltration of the foreigners. The Huns came into India on a large scale in the second half of the fifth century AD. 

3.Many tribes were Brahamanised and brought into the fold of brahmanical order. The position of shudras improved during this period. They became agriculturists also, in addition to domestic slaves and servants and agricultural labourers.

4.The number of untouchables increased during this period on account of the prohibited marriage of the pratiloma marriage where the shudra groom married with the bride of higher varna like Brahmana, Kshatriya or and Vaishya. The untouchables lived outside the village.

5. Sati system became prevalent during this period and in patriarchal society women began to be treated as the item of the property and except stree dhan they were not allowed to inherit landed property of their parents. Widow remarriage and niyog were completely prohibited among higher varnas. But shudras could practise widow remarriage or niyog.

The period of Chalkuyas and Pallavas (300 AD - 700 AD)

1.The period saw the rise of Brahmanism in south India. However, Pallavas and Chalukyas fought against each other for supremacy for 200 years and ultimately destroyed themselves.

2.Society was dominated by the princes and priests. The king claimed the status of Brahmin. However, many of them were local clans. The priests got extensive land grants and so they became very much influential. Below the princes and priests were peasants who were shudras.   The king was ordained to protect dharma, which means that nobody was allowed to deviate from their assigned duties. Most of the kings adopted the title of dharma maharaja. This period saw extensive agrarian expansion in the peninsula. Because of the high taxation upon lower varnas and acute social inequality, Kalbharas revolted against the supremacy of Brahamanas. They captured Brahmadey villages. They defeated one by one the Chola, the Pandya and the Cherra kings. Their revolt could be quelled only by the joint efforts of Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pandyas kings. This shows that the large scale land grants to Brahmanas adversely affected the peasants. 

Conclusion 

1.Thus we see that the society in ancient India passed from several stages of evolution. From the food gathering society of the palaeolithic age , it was succeeded by food producing society of the neolithic and chalcolithic age.  Indus valley people developed an urban civilisation. 

2.During the Rig Vedic the society was tribal and pastoral. 

3.During the later Vedic period the society became agricultural and they practised subsistence farming.

4.During the post Vedic period the society was fully divided into four varnas of Brahamana, Khastriya, Vaishya and Shudras. The interaction among these varnas became less with the passage of time. Because of the introduction of iron in the agricultural activities in the Gangetic valley, the peasants could produce surplus and so, they were then in the position to pay taxes to the kings. This led to the rise of the Magadha empire.

5.During the Mauryan period, the Brahmanical reaction was witnessed against Ashoka's policy. During the Kushan period, so many castes and sub-castes proliferated because of the intrusion of large scale foreigners into India. 

6.In the Gupta period in north India and during the period of the Chalukya and the Pallavas of peninsular India, large scale land grants to Brahmanas and government officials eroded the central authority. The burden of the heavy taxation upon peasantry was very much resented by them and they revolted against the kingdoms of Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas.  And the revolt was so extensive that it could be quelled only by the joint efforts of all the kingdoms of the peninsula. Thus, we see the growth and development of landlordism in both north and south India since 5th century AD. This phenomenon weakened the central authority leading to the rise of so many kingdoms throughout India. 

How to investigate car accidents on the road ?

Why is it in the news ?

1.A teenage boy from a wealthy family of Pune killed two engineers by his car, who were riding on the bike on the road. The boy was alleged to have been drunk. Although the driver was sitting within the Porsche car, the teenager boy was driving the car. The accident occurred on the night of 19th May 2024.

2.The police arrested the mother, father and grandfather of the teenage accused. Her mother was accused of giving her blood sample so that it could be swapped with that of her 17 year old accused son. Similarly, his father was accused of swapping the blood sample of his son so that the blood test of the accused should not have the content of alcohol in his blood.  The grandfather was accused of abducting the driver and forcing him to take the blame for the accident that killed two software engineers. 

3.Police also arrested Ajay Tawde, the former head of the forensic medicine department at the state run Sasoon Hospital, Dr. Shri Hari Harnon, casualty medical officer and Atul Ghat Kamble, staff at the morgue for allegedly changing the minor’s blood sample in return for financial favours. The trio have since been  placed under suspension. 

4.Police is going to collect the DNA sample of the mother of the accused so that it can be matched with a swapped sample at Sasoon hospital. 

5.The accused teenage boy is under remand at an observation home in Pune till June 5th on the revised order of juvenile justice board. The interrogation is going on to ascertain the location of the accused teenager before the accident, about him driving the vehicle, about how the accident happened and what happened at Sasoon hospital. 

6.The police questioned the hospital nurses, leading to the revelation of  the accused mother's alleged involvement in the swapping of blood samples. 

7.The role of sitting MLA, Sunil Tingre of NCP (Ajit Pawar) who reached the Yerwada police station  immediately after the incident, is also being investigated by the police. 

8.Meanwhile the CM of Maharashtra Eknath Shinde has expressed grief over the Pune luxury car crash and promised that the guilty will not be spared. The CM Shinde assured parents of the killed engineers of thorough investigation in the case. He assured that he will personally monitor the case and will review it daily. 

Introduction 

1.Road accidents have been the leading cause of deaths worldwide. 

2.In 2019, a total of 4,49,002 accidents were reported across the country resulting in 1,51,113 deaths and 4,51,361 injuries to road users. This averages to almost 1230 accidents, 414 deaths daily.

3. The 5.04% of total roads in India comprise of national and state highways and have cumulatively accounted for almost 54% accidents and 60% deaths in the country with the balance 94% of Indian roads contributing to 45% of road accidents and 39% of deaths. The high number of accidents on highways are indicative of overspeeding being the primary cause for such accidents. 

How to investigate car accidents on the road? 

1.The main purpose of the whole investigation of an accident is to establish the cause of the incident.

2.The cause of the accident is necessary for the investigation of the case in order to fix responsibility upon the guilty, to make known the nature of the incident to the family members of the victim as to how the accident took place.  It is also necessary for safety authorities to make improvements so that such types of accidents can be prevented from re- occurrence. 

3.In a car accident, it is necessary to establish the identity of the location where the accident took place on the highways or roads.

• To identify the driver in a case where the owner of the vehicle alleges the theft of his vehicle. 

• To identify the vehicle in a hit and run case.

4.Collection of physical evidence from the scene of crime is of primary importance. Location of the vehicle may be sketched, photograph should be taken, dent on the accidental car should be taken note of. In case of collision the traces left on the car according to the principle of mutual exchange should be taken note of as per Locard's theory. 

5.At the crime scene following evidence should be collected -

• The location, direction and position of the accidental car. 

• Broken or damaged part of the vehicle.

• Greases and lubricants

• Glass pieces of various shapes and sizes.

• Tire impressions of the four wheels which are found either at sharp turns or where the vehicle has been reversed or when the brake has been used to lock the wheels.

• Skid marks. The formula of a skid mark is S = 5.5√CL where S is the speed of the vehicle (in miles per hour), C is the coefficient of the friction between surface of the road and the tyres of the vehicle and L stands for the length of the longest skid mark on the surface in feet. If the road is dry the value of C normally ranges between 0.69 and 0.75. For example, there is a skid mark of 32 feet and coefficient is 0.72, the speed of the car would be 26.4 miles/hr. 

• Dust,dirt or other debris fell from the suspect vehicle at the time of impact.

• Personal or vehicular articles left at the scene.

• Drag marks of the loaded material.

6.Following examination of the vehicle should be done   

• Finger and palm print, tool marks and fabric prints.

• Hair, fibres, blood stains or skin pieces from the victim, small broken parts or fragments of the vehicle or the article hit.

• Broken glass, paint, greases, lubricants from the vehicles which were hit and control samples from the suspected vehicles or similar articles to those left at the scene of crime.

• Cigarettes and Bidi butts from the vehicle.

• Mechanical fault of the vehicle.

• Evidence related to changes in paints and numbers on registration plate and serial number on engine and chassis. 

• Evidence related to overloading of vehicles. 

7.Following examinations of the victim / driver should be done

•  Injuries 

• Blood present on the clothes

• Hair, skin 

• Alcohol and narcotics in the body, if the victim has taken the same. 

• Signs of disease from post mortem report.

• Physical examination of the driver including his blood samples to ascertain whether he was drunk at the time of accident or have taken some narcotics and psychotropic drugs like heroin, morphin, charas, ganja or hasis, opium 

8. Collection of physical evidences 

• Take photographs and make sketches of the scene at the earliest without any disturbance at the place.

• Photographs and sketches should be taken in such a way that the location of the accident scene can be fixed by including some of the prominent fixed landmarks like milestones or any hoarding. 

• Photographs should be taken in such a way to show the identity of the vehicle, like the kind of vehicle or its number plate. 

• Before taking away  the vehicle, note down the reading of the speedometer, record the temperature of the vehicle, of the atmosphere and of the water in the radiator. 

Evaluation of the physical evidence

• Evaluation should be based upon logic and feasibility.

• The statements of witnesses should be corroborated with the collected physical evidence from the scene of crime.

• Relationships should be established between the marks and the person involved. 

• The investigator should develop his own interpretation about the crime. 

• The evidence of the eye witnesses should be reviewed. Are there any areas of agreement or disagreement or if there are disagreements, then why?

• The condition of the vehicle is to be examined as to whether the vehicle itself was the cause of the accident or not?

• What was the speed at the time of road accidents because overspeeding is one of the biggest causes of the crash. 

• Condition of the road and the ability of the driver and his physical health have also to be examined.

• By the measurement of the skid mark, the initial velocity of the accidental car can be ascertained. 

• The visibility and extent of the vehicle damage have to be ascertained. 

Conclusion

• The investigation of a vehicle accident is to ascertain the cause of the incident to establish the guilt of the accused in the court of law.

• In the investigation of vehicle accidents, physical evidence plays a very important role.

• In most of the hit and run or accidental cases, the vehicle involved may carry traces from the scene of occurrence or from other vehicles involved. 

• Skid marks play a very important role in measuring the initial speed of the accidental car. 

• Similarly, the extent of vehicle damage indicates the over speeding of the vehicle. 

How do the Monsoonal rains occur in India? What are its impact upon our economy?

 Why is it in the news ?

1.The southwest Monsoon has intensified across the state of Kerala with torrential rain, triggering destruction, waterlogging, landslides and uprooting of trees.

2.Five people have been killed in various rain related incidents in the state, including two in Thrissur who were struck by lightning on Saturday.

3. Landslips have been reported in various parts of the state. An orange alert warning of very heavy rainfall has been issued for Wayanad Kozhikode and Idukki  and a yellow alert for districts from Ernakulam to Kasaragod. 

4.The central water commission released its flood situation report, detailing significant rainfall and resultant severe flood conditions in various regions of the country with Kerala and Assam being the most affected. 

5.The IMD has forecast continued heavy rainfall in districts such as Thrissur, Kozhikode,Idukki, Palakkad and Wayanad. So, the Monsoon has arrived on its scheduled date on the 1st June at the coastal area of Kerala. 

How Monsoonal rains occur in India?

1.According to noted astronomer, Halley, the primary cause of the occurrence of Indian Monsoon is on account of the differential heating effects of the land and the sea. During the summer season, in the northern hemisphere when the sun’s rays are vertical on the tropic of cancer, the huge landmass of Asia heats up quickly and develops a strong low pressure centre near the lake Baikal (Siberia) and Peshawar (Pakistan). In comparison to the heating of the landmass of South Asia, the pressure over the adjacent Indian and Pacific oceans is very high. Thus, a sea to land pressure gradient develops. This leads to the surface airflow from the high pressure area over the oceans towards the low pressure areas of the heated landmass of South Asia. Since, the wind coming from oceans towards the land is warm and moist. They cause heavy rain when they come into contact with the Himalaya mountains. The moist laden winds ascend and then saturate, condense and precipitate. In the winter season, the high pressure area develops near Baikal lake (Siberia) and Peshawar  (Pakistan) while the Indian and Pacific ocean remains relatively warm. Therefore, there is an outflow of air from the high pressure of the land to the low pressure of the ocean. This wind is cold and dry and therefore, incapable of giving precipitation unless it comes into contact with some water body like the sea or ocean. 

2.But this theory is not universally accepted now. If the Monsoon had taken place on account of differential heating of land and sea, then the monsoonal rain would have started in the month of April and May itself, because these two months are very hot in North India and Pakistan. But the Monsoonal rains are likely to occur in 2024 after 15th June in Bihar, 25th June in UP, 30th June in Punjab and Haryana and 5th July in Pakistani Punjab. 

3.Moreover, Monsoonal rainfall is not wholly orographic but they are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic and cyclonic rainfall. 

4.The Monsoonal rains occur in India because of interplay of several factors. The intertropical convergence zone shifts northward between 20 degree N and 25 degree N latitude because of the vertical rays of the sun on the tropic of cancer. The northward shift of ITCZ causes withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from over the northern Indian plain. Since ITCZ is a zone of low pressure, it attracts inflow of winds from different directions.  The maritime tropical air mass from the southern hemisphere after crossing the equator, rushes to the low pressure area in the south westerly direction. This moist laden air current is known as southwest monsoon. As long as westerly jet streams flowing on the Tibetan highlands and south of the Himalayas are active, no monsoonal rain occurs in Gangetic belt of India. Once the ITCZ is created between 20 degree to 25 degree north of the latitude and the westerly jet stream is withdrawn from the Gangetic basin, and the easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the peninsula between 15 degree N to 20 degree N latitude, these phenomena leads to tropical depression into India. These depressions play a significant role in the distribution of Monsoon rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. 

5.Thus, the southwest monsoon is a continuation of southeast trades deflected towards Indian subcontinents after crossing the equator between 40 degree E and 60 degree E longitudes.  

6.To sum up, the shift in the position of the ITCZ between 20 degree to 25 degree N of latitudes supported by the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream over the Gangetic plain and the positioning of easterly jet stream along 15 degree N latitude after the withdrawal of westerly jet stream results into the arrival of monsoon in India. 

7. The monsoon approaches the landmass of India in two branches - the Arabian sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch, the Arabian sea branch is further split into three branches - western ghats branch, Mumbai branch and Saurashtra and Kutch branch. 

8.The Bay of Bengal branch is split into Myanmar and Bangladesh Branch and another is Indian branch crossing into West Bengal. The Indian branch is split into a westward branch along the Gangetic plain from Bengal to Punjab while another branch moves into Brahmaputra Valley and goes further to Meghalaya to be stopped by Garo,Khasi and Jaintia hills, causing heaviest rainfall in Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in India. 

9.Tamil Nadu remains dry during this season because its coast is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of South West Monsoon. Secondly , it lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian sea branch of the South West Monsoon. 

10.The Monsoon retreats from Northern India by the end of September. The retreating northeast monsoon during the month of October and November picks up moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and causes torrential rainfall over Tamil Nadu coast , Southern Andhra Pradesh, Southeast Karnataka and South East Kerala. 

Features of Monsoonal rainfall

1.Southwest monsoon is seasonal in character. It occurs between June to September. However, the retreating southwest monsoon causes heavy rainfall on the coast of Tamil Nadu in the months of October and November.

2.Monsoonal rainfall is governed by a relief or topography. For example, the windward side of western ghats receives more than 250 cm annual rainfall while the leeward side has scanty rainfall. Similar situation obtains in the case of eastern Himalayas where heavy rainfall occurs. 

3.The monsoonal rainfall starts declining with the increasing distance from the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian sea. For example, rainfalls are heavy in Kolkata and Patna when compared to Allahabad and Delhi. 

4.Monsoonal rains occur a few days interspersed with rainless intervals known as breaks.  

5.The southwest monsoon in the summer causes heavy rainfall leading to considerable runoff and soil erosion.

6.The spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm annual rainfall. 

7.The monsoonal rainfall is sometimes erratic and delayed.

8.The monsoonal rainfalls sometimes end early causing damage to standing crops. 

Its impact upon our economy

1.Southwest monsoon causes three fourth rains in India. It is a lifeline for the agricultural economy in India. 

2.Since, 45% of our agricultural land is unirrigated, the monsoonal rainfalls help in the production of cotton, sugarcane, oil seeds, pulses in the areas of western and south India. 

3.Heavy rainfall leads to soil erosion in the Gangetic Valley. 

4.Variability of rainfall brings drought or floods every year in some parts of the country. 

5. Since 42% of our people depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, any failure of monsoonal rainfall extremely impacts the agricultural productivity of our country. Since 18% of our GDP is constituted by agriculture and allied activities, any set back to the monsoonal rainfall causes immense damage to our economy. 

6.A bad monsoon may lead our farmers to be entrapped in debt. Crops like rice, require  large amounts of water and so any failure of monsoonal rainfall adversely impacts the productivity of rice, sugarcane and cotton. 

7.Fishing activities in India depend upon monsoonal rainfall because of replenishing of water level in rivers and lakes. 

8.Power generation is also impacted if there is a failure of monsoonal rainfall.

Conclusion

1.Monsoonal rainfall is essential for the Indian economy for providing vital hydropower, irrigation and sustenance to our agriculture.

2.Since the climate change is impacting the monsoonal rainfall, it is incumbent for India to take collective action along with other countries of the world to reduce the emission of the greenhouse gases. 

Composition and Direction of India’s foreign trade

 Introduction

1.Before independence, the foreign trade of India was basically colonial in nature to subserve the mother country, Great Britain. India exported raw materials and food items to Britain and imported manufactured goods from Britain. This resulted in a severe blow to the indigenous handicrafts in India. 

2. After independence, India embarked upon the path of development and industrialisation. Hence, it had to import capital goods like machinery, equipment for setting up steel plants, locomotive factories, hydroelectric projects, Secondly, India had to import consumer goods like food grain, jute, cotton on account of the partition in order to arrest the rise of prices of those items. Because of the increasing volume of imports, the balance of trade went against India because imports exceed exports. 

Pattern of imports 

1.The rise in imports was due to the demands of capital goods like machinery and equipment for the industrialisation of our country. Secondly, growing imports has been due to the liberalisation policy adopted by the government of India since 1991. Thirdly, the declining imports of food grains and consumer goods was on account of India becoming self-sufficient in food production because of the Green Revolution and industrial growth. Fourthly, the volume of imports grew on account of sharp rise in international prices of petroleum products and fast increase in domestic demand. For example, from 69 crores in 1960-61, the import bill of POL increased to 10 lakhs crores in 2013-14. Similarly, the growth in agriculture demanded heavy use of fertilisers and so, the import bill of the fertilisers increased from 13 crores in 1960-61 to 38 thousand crores. The import of metals like iron and steel and non ferrous metals increased from a paltry 54 crores in the first plan to 2 lakhs 75 thousand crores in 2013-14, necessitated by the programmes of industrial expansion, development of railways and hydroelectric projects. Similarly, imports of chemicals, drugs and medicines  increased from 39 crore in 1960-61 to 40 thousand crores in 2013-2014.

2.Because of the rising demand of the affluent sections of our population the import of pearls and precious stones increased manifolds. Import of capital goods like machinery, electrical, non-electrical equipment, and computers increased from 356 crores in 1960-61 to 4 lakh 84 thousand crores in 2013-14.

3.As of 2023, Indian imports includes petroleum products, gold, diamond, coal and other gaseous hydrocarbons. At the time of independence, the composition of India’s imports included oils, pulses, machinery, chemical, hardware, pharmaceuticals, dyes, yarns, paper, grains, non-ferrous metals, cars and capital goods like non electrical and electrical machinery and metals. India is heavily dependent on raw materials like active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), organic chemicals, iron and steel. The composition of import has undergone a shift away from raw materials to intermediate and capital goods over the last two decades. The total merchandise imports witnessed a growth of more than 26 times during 1991 to 2019. The imports have increased at a higher rate than the exports during the same period. Higher import has been necessitated because of the accelerated infrastructure build up and to boost manufacturing exports. 

Pattern of exports

1.There has been a continuous decline of the exports of agricultural raw materials and allied products because of the increase in the population and consequent increase in domestic consumption and so there has not been a perceptible surplus in many traditional commodities like tea or food grains. However, since the 1960s, export of fish and fish products, cashew kernel, coffee, rice, vegetables and fruits increased manifold. Similarly, on account of industrialization, the export of engineering goods, handicrafts, iron and steel, machinery, metal manufactures, iron ore, chemicals, readymade garments, jewellery, semi precious stones increased manifold. (see the table pic 3) and these goods constitute about 70% of India's exports now. India has also seen a sharp jump in the export of electronic goods and software because of the growing information technology industries in Bengaluru and Hyderabad. Traditional items like cotton fabrics, tea, leather and leather manufactures are also growing and expanding. 

2.Thus, both traditional and non-traditional items are being exported by India. This is the sign of a diversified economy. The large expansion of engineering goods and its exports is due to the fact that it has become viable and competitive in the international market. India is also the exporter of engineering goods to middle east countries because these countries have undertaken infrastructure development recently.  

3.India is now in a position to compete in the international market and its products are very much appreciated by the people worldwide. High quality of engineering goods, readymade clothes and handicrafts have high potential for the growth of exports. From an importer of food items, India has become a major exporter of rice. However, India is facing stiff competition from China in the export of iron and steel. Moreover, the import of iron and steel is indicative of under utilisation of steel plants. The exporting of iron ore further shows that India is not in the position to produce iron and steel to the maximum for want of capital and competitiveness from China and other advanced countries of the world. 

4.The composition of exports has undergone structural changes. The percentage share of non-traditional goods like engineering goods, sugar, chemicals, pharmaceuticals,  electrical goods, iron and steel, leather goods, gems, jewellery, sports goods, toys, projects goods have increased. In addition, exports of  the traditional products like coffee, tea, jute, iron ore, animal skin,cotton, minerals, fish and fish products have also increased manifold.

Direction of India’s foreign trade

1.Exports to and imports from OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries have declined in the last 30 years. The volume of export was 59% in 1987-88 which sharply decreased to 35.2% in 2014-15. Similarly, the volume of import was 60% in 1987-88 which came down to 26.9% in 2014-15. Thus, India was able to lower its excessive dependence upon advanced countries of OECD. 

2.India’s trade with developing countries with Asia, Africa and Latin America has shown an upward trend, the exports to developing countries which were only 14.2% in 1987-1988 shot up to 43.9% in 2014-15. Export to countries of Asia improved from 12 % to 30.2% during this period. China and Hong Kong shared about 8.3% of our exports. Imports from developing countries have risen from 17.3% in 1987-88 to 39% in 2014-15. Import from China and Hong Kong further increased to 14.7% in 2014-15. Export to OPEC countries increased from 6.1% in 1987-88 to 18.1% in 2014-15. However, imports from OPEC have shot up to 30.6% in 2014-15 on account of the increasing international price of the POL and growing demand in India. 

3.The USA occupies second place among individual countries with a share of 13.7% in our exports and 4.9% in our imports. The UK has lost its preeminent position and accounts for only 3% exports and 1.1% imports. 

4.Australia, Japan, Switzerland had 2.9% share in our exports and 9.5% in our imports in 2014-15. Whereas they accounted for 12.5% of our exports and 12.9% of our imports in 1987-88. This shows a sharp dip in both imports and exports in relation to these countries. During this period, Latin America witnessed an increase in the volume of exports to 4.7% in 2014-15 and 3.9% in imports during the same period.

Thrust areas 

1.Thus, from the above data it is clear that there are ample opportunities for India to expand its exports in Latin American and African countries. Similarly, imports can be increased from African countries. The excessive dependence upon advanced countries of the world has declined. India has further improved its export and import position with Asian countries. The diversified foreign trade is beneficial to India. 

2.However, China once again became the biggest trading partner of India in 2024.

This is due to the fact that India imports heavily from China in contrast to the low exports to China by India.  This resulted in the trade deficit and adverse balance of trade with China. While exports to China have remained stagnant, imports from China have surged. India has a trade deficit of $85.1 billion in the financial year 2024. A majority of items that India imports from China constitute electronics and electrical items. India imported $75 billion worth of mobiles, telephone from China. Other items include automatic data processing units, semiconductor devices and diodes and electronic integrated circuits. Thus, India is dependent upon China for 54% of its mobiles, telephones,56% of automatic data processing units, 70% of semiconductor devices and diodes and 32% of electronic integrated circuits and micro assemblies. Hence, it is incumbent upon India to lessen the overdependence on China. There is an urgent need to reverse the adverse balance of trade with China, considering the frequent tension between both countries on account of border disputes.

3.The trade relationship with the US is just the opposite. India is exporting more to the US than it is importing. Thus, the trade balance has been widening in recent years. India has a trade surplus of $36.7 Billion.

4.An important feature of India’s foreign trade is that India has a trade deficit with most of the major countries of the world. The trade deficit with Russia has skyrocketed from just $6.6 billion in 2022 to $57.2 billion in 2024 because of the import of oil at a concessional rate from Russia. It has become the chief supplier of POL to India.

5.India’s trade surplus with the Netherlands has increased because of the sanction against Russia by European countries. India refines 40-45% of crude oil imported from Russia and then it sells to the Netherlands which in turn sells POL to other European countries. 

Conclusion

1.The composition of India’s foreign trade has undergone substantial changes. The rate of increase in trade was slower in the pre reform period as compared to post reform which registered a higher rate. The growth rate of imports was higher than the growth rate of export, resulting in recurrent trade deficit. 

2. India’s major exports now include manufacturing goods such as engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and elite products, gems and jewelleries, textiles, electronic goods which constitute over 80% of India’s export basket. It is a remarkable achievement that India has transformed itself from a predominantly primary goods exporting country into a manufacturing and services goods exporting country. India’s dependence on food grain has also declined. Major import items constitute capital goods and intermediates which support the manufacturing sector in order to beat the unfavourable balance of trade in the post reform period, it would be necessary to add new commodities and services at competitive prices in the export basket. It is heartening to note that India’s services trade plus has increased due to a surge in IT exports. But the increase in services is not so much to offset the losses incurred by trade in merchandise. 

3.Over the years, India’s direction of trade has undergone substantial change with countries of Asia and Africa. The share of OECD countries, except North America, in India's overall export earnings declined continuously. Developing countries and OPEC emerged as the potential markets for Indian exports. The share of African and Asian developing countries showed an upward trend and these countries have emerged as good markets for Indian exports.

4.Though the volume and value of Indian exports has increased manifold, India’s share in world exports is still far behind China and other developing countries of the world. India’s share of global goods exports was 1.8% in 2023 and imports was 2.8%. Overall trade (merchandise plus services) exports US$770.18 billion and imports US$ 892.18 billion leading to  US$ -122 dollar as trade balance.