How do the Monsoonal rains occur in India? What are its impact upon our economy?

 Why is it in the news ?

1.The southwest Monsoon has intensified across the state of Kerala with torrential rain, triggering destruction, waterlogging, landslides and uprooting of trees.

2.Five people have been killed in various rain related incidents in the state, including two in Thrissur who were struck by lightning on Saturday.

3. Landslips have been reported in various parts of the state. An orange alert warning of very heavy rainfall has been issued for Wayanad Kozhikode and Idukki  and a yellow alert for districts from Ernakulam to Kasaragod. 

4.The central water commission released its flood situation report, detailing significant rainfall and resultant severe flood conditions in various regions of the country with Kerala and Assam being the most affected. 

5.The IMD has forecast continued heavy rainfall in districts such as Thrissur, Kozhikode,Idukki, Palakkad and Wayanad. So, the Monsoon has arrived on its scheduled date on the 1st June at the coastal area of Kerala. 

How Monsoonal rains occur in India?

1.According to noted astronomer, Halley, the primary cause of the occurrence of Indian Monsoon is on account of the differential heating effects of the land and the sea. During the summer season, in the northern hemisphere when the sun’s rays are vertical on the tropic of cancer, the huge landmass of Asia heats up quickly and develops a strong low pressure centre near the lake Baikal (Siberia) and Peshawar (Pakistan). In comparison to the heating of the landmass of South Asia, the pressure over the adjacent Indian and Pacific oceans is very high. Thus, a sea to land pressure gradient develops. This leads to the surface airflow from the high pressure area over the oceans towards the low pressure areas of the heated landmass of South Asia. Since, the wind coming from oceans towards the land is warm and moist. They cause heavy rain when they come into contact with the Himalaya mountains. The moist laden winds ascend and then saturate, condense and precipitate. In the winter season, the high pressure area develops near Baikal lake (Siberia) and Peshawar  (Pakistan) while the Indian and Pacific ocean remains relatively warm. Therefore, there is an outflow of air from the high pressure of the land to the low pressure of the ocean. This wind is cold and dry and therefore, incapable of giving precipitation unless it comes into contact with some water body like the sea or ocean. 

2.But this theory is not universally accepted now. If the Monsoon had taken place on account of differential heating of land and sea, then the monsoonal rain would have started in the month of April and May itself, because these two months are very hot in North India and Pakistan. But the Monsoonal rains are likely to occur in 2024 after 15th June in Bihar, 25th June in UP, 30th June in Punjab and Haryana and 5th July in Pakistani Punjab. 

3.Moreover, Monsoonal rainfall is not wholly orographic but they are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic and cyclonic rainfall. 

4.The Monsoonal rains occur in India because of interplay of several factors. The intertropical convergence zone shifts northward between 20 degree N and 25 degree N latitude because of the vertical rays of the sun on the tropic of cancer. The northward shift of ITCZ causes withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from over the northern Indian plain. Since ITCZ is a zone of low pressure, it attracts inflow of winds from different directions.  The maritime tropical air mass from the southern hemisphere after crossing the equator, rushes to the low pressure area in the south westerly direction. This moist laden air current is known as southwest monsoon. As long as westerly jet streams flowing on the Tibetan highlands and south of the Himalayas are active, no monsoonal rain occurs in Gangetic belt of India. Once the ITCZ is created between 20 degree to 25 degree north of the latitude and the westerly jet stream is withdrawn from the Gangetic basin, and the easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the peninsula between 15 degree N to 20 degree N latitude, these phenomena leads to tropical depression into India. These depressions play a significant role in the distribution of Monsoon rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. 

5.Thus, the southwest monsoon is a continuation of southeast trades deflected towards Indian subcontinents after crossing the equator between 40 degree E and 60 degree E longitudes.  

6.To sum up, the shift in the position of the ITCZ between 20 degree to 25 degree N of latitudes supported by the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream over the Gangetic plain and the positioning of easterly jet stream along 15 degree N latitude after the withdrawal of westerly jet stream results into the arrival of monsoon in India. 

7. The monsoon approaches the landmass of India in two branches - the Arabian sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch, the Arabian sea branch is further split into three branches - western ghats branch, Mumbai branch and Saurashtra and Kutch branch. 

8.The Bay of Bengal branch is split into Myanmar and Bangladesh Branch and another is Indian branch crossing into West Bengal. The Indian branch is split into a westward branch along the Gangetic plain from Bengal to Punjab while another branch moves into Brahmaputra Valley and goes further to Meghalaya to be stopped by Garo,Khasi and Jaintia hills, causing heaviest rainfall in Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in India. 

9.Tamil Nadu remains dry during this season because its coast is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of South West Monsoon. Secondly , it lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian sea branch of the South West Monsoon. 

10.The Monsoon retreats from Northern India by the end of September. The retreating northeast monsoon during the month of October and November picks up moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and causes torrential rainfall over Tamil Nadu coast , Southern Andhra Pradesh, Southeast Karnataka and South East Kerala. 

Features of Monsoonal rainfall

1.Southwest monsoon is seasonal in character. It occurs between June to September. However, the retreating southwest monsoon causes heavy rainfall on the coast of Tamil Nadu in the months of October and November.

2.Monsoonal rainfall is governed by a relief or topography. For example, the windward side of western ghats receives more than 250 cm annual rainfall while the leeward side has scanty rainfall. Similar situation obtains in the case of eastern Himalayas where heavy rainfall occurs. 

3.The monsoonal rainfall starts declining with the increasing distance from the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian sea. For example, rainfalls are heavy in Kolkata and Patna when compared to Allahabad and Delhi. 

4.Monsoonal rains occur a few days interspersed with rainless intervals known as breaks.  

5.The southwest monsoon in the summer causes heavy rainfall leading to considerable runoff and soil erosion.

6.The spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm annual rainfall. 

7.The monsoonal rainfall is sometimes erratic and delayed.

8.The monsoonal rainfalls sometimes end early causing damage to standing crops. 

Its impact upon our economy

1.Southwest monsoon causes three fourth rains in India. It is a lifeline for the agricultural economy in India. 

2.Since, 45% of our agricultural land is unirrigated, the monsoonal rainfalls help in the production of cotton, sugarcane, oil seeds, pulses in the areas of western and south India. 

3.Heavy rainfall leads to soil erosion in the Gangetic Valley. 

4.Variability of rainfall brings drought or floods every year in some parts of the country. 

5. Since 42% of our people depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, any failure of monsoonal rainfall extremely impacts the agricultural productivity of our country. Since 18% of our GDP is constituted by agriculture and allied activities, any set back to the monsoonal rainfall causes immense damage to our economy. 

6.A bad monsoon may lead our farmers to be entrapped in debt. Crops like rice, require  large amounts of water and so any failure of monsoonal rainfall adversely impacts the productivity of rice, sugarcane and cotton. 

7.Fishing activities in India depend upon monsoonal rainfall because of replenishing of water level in rivers and lakes. 

8.Power generation is also impacted if there is a failure of monsoonal rainfall.

Conclusion

1.Monsoonal rainfall is essential for the Indian economy for providing vital hydropower, irrigation and sustenance to our agriculture.

2.Since the climate change is impacting the monsoonal rainfall, it is incumbent for India to take collective action along with other countries of the world to reduce the emission of the greenhouse gases. 

Composition and Direction of India’s foreign trade

 Introduction

1.Before independence, the foreign trade of India was basically colonial in nature to subserve the mother country, Great Britain. India exported raw materials and food items to Britain and imported manufactured goods from Britain. This resulted in a severe blow to the indigenous handicrafts in India. 

2. After independence, India embarked upon the path of development and industrialisation. Hence, it had to import capital goods like machinery, equipment for setting up steel plants, locomotive factories, hydroelectric projects, Secondly, India had to import consumer goods like food grain, jute, cotton on account of the partition in order to arrest the rise of prices of those items. Because of the increasing volume of imports, the balance of trade went against India because imports exceed exports. 

Pattern of imports 

1.The rise in imports was due to the demands of capital goods like machinery and equipment for the industrialisation of our country. Secondly, growing imports has been due to the liberalisation policy adopted by the government of India since 1991. Thirdly, the declining imports of food grains and consumer goods was on account of India becoming self-sufficient in food production because of the Green Revolution and industrial growth. Fourthly, the volume of imports grew on account of sharp rise in international prices of petroleum products and fast increase in domestic demand. For example, from 69 crores in 1960-61, the import bill of POL increased to 10 lakhs crores in 2013-14. Similarly, the growth in agriculture demanded heavy use of fertilisers and so, the import bill of the fertilisers increased from 13 crores in 1960-61 to 38 thousand crores. The import of metals like iron and steel and non ferrous metals increased from a paltry 54 crores in the first plan to 2 lakhs 75 thousand crores in 2013-14, necessitated by the programmes of industrial expansion, development of railways and hydroelectric projects. Similarly, imports of chemicals, drugs and medicines  increased from 39 crore in 1960-61 to 40 thousand crores in 2013-2014.

2.Because of the rising demand of the affluent sections of our population the import of pearls and precious stones increased manifolds. Import of capital goods like machinery, electrical, non-electrical equipment, and computers increased from 356 crores in 1960-61 to 4 lakh 84 thousand crores in 2013-14.

3.As of 2023, Indian imports includes petroleum products, gold, diamond, coal and other gaseous hydrocarbons. At the time of independence, the composition of India’s imports included oils, pulses, machinery, chemical, hardware, pharmaceuticals, dyes, yarns, paper, grains, non-ferrous metals, cars and capital goods like non electrical and electrical machinery and metals. India is heavily dependent on raw materials like active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), organic chemicals, iron and steel. The composition of import has undergone a shift away from raw materials to intermediate and capital goods over the last two decades. The total merchandise imports witnessed a growth of more than 26 times during 1991 to 2019. The imports have increased at a higher rate than the exports during the same period. Higher import has been necessitated because of the accelerated infrastructure build up and to boost manufacturing exports. 

Pattern of exports

1.There has been a continuous decline of the exports of agricultural raw materials and allied products because of the increase in the population and consequent increase in domestic consumption and so there has not been a perceptible surplus in many traditional commodities like tea or food grains. However, since the 1960s, export of fish and fish products, cashew kernel, coffee, rice, vegetables and fruits increased manifold. Similarly, on account of industrialization, the export of engineering goods, handicrafts, iron and steel, machinery, metal manufactures, iron ore, chemicals, readymade garments, jewellery, semi precious stones increased manifold. (see the table pic 3) and these goods constitute about 70% of India's exports now. India has also seen a sharp jump in the export of electronic goods and software because of the growing information technology industries in Bengaluru and Hyderabad. Traditional items like cotton fabrics, tea, leather and leather manufactures are also growing and expanding. 

2.Thus, both traditional and non-traditional items are being exported by India. This is the sign of a diversified economy. The large expansion of engineering goods and its exports is due to the fact that it has become viable and competitive in the international market. India is also the exporter of engineering goods to middle east countries because these countries have undertaken infrastructure development recently.  

3.India is now in a position to compete in the international market and its products are very much appreciated by the people worldwide. High quality of engineering goods, readymade clothes and handicrafts have high potential for the growth of exports. From an importer of food items, India has become a major exporter of rice. However, India is facing stiff competition from China in the export of iron and steel. Moreover, the import of iron and steel is indicative of under utilisation of steel plants. The exporting of iron ore further shows that India is not in the position to produce iron and steel to the maximum for want of capital and competitiveness from China and other advanced countries of the world. 

4.The composition of exports has undergone structural changes. The percentage share of non-traditional goods like engineering goods, sugar, chemicals, pharmaceuticals,  electrical goods, iron and steel, leather goods, gems, jewellery, sports goods, toys, projects goods have increased. In addition, exports of  the traditional products like coffee, tea, jute, iron ore, animal skin,cotton, minerals, fish and fish products have also increased manifold.

Direction of India’s foreign trade

1.Exports to and imports from OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries have declined in the last 30 years. The volume of export was 59% in 1987-88 which sharply decreased to 35.2% in 2014-15. Similarly, the volume of import was 60% in 1987-88 which came down to 26.9% in 2014-15. Thus, India was able to lower its excessive dependence upon advanced countries of OECD. 

2.India’s trade with developing countries with Asia, Africa and Latin America has shown an upward trend, the exports to developing countries which were only 14.2% in 1987-1988 shot up to 43.9% in 2014-15. Export to countries of Asia improved from 12 % to 30.2% during this period. China and Hong Kong shared about 8.3% of our exports. Imports from developing countries have risen from 17.3% in 1987-88 to 39% in 2014-15. Import from China and Hong Kong further increased to 14.7% in 2014-15. Export to OPEC countries increased from 6.1% in 1987-88 to 18.1% in 2014-15. However, imports from OPEC have shot up to 30.6% in 2014-15 on account of the increasing international price of the POL and growing demand in India. 

3.The USA occupies second place among individual countries with a share of 13.7% in our exports and 4.9% in our imports. The UK has lost its preeminent position and accounts for only 3% exports and 1.1% imports. 

4.Australia, Japan, Switzerland had 2.9% share in our exports and 9.5% in our imports in 2014-15. Whereas they accounted for 12.5% of our exports and 12.9% of our imports in 1987-88. This shows a sharp dip in both imports and exports in relation to these countries. During this period, Latin America witnessed an increase in the volume of exports to 4.7% in 2014-15 and 3.9% in imports during the same period.

Thrust areas 

1.Thus, from the above data it is clear that there are ample opportunities for India to expand its exports in Latin American and African countries. Similarly, imports can be increased from African countries. The excessive dependence upon advanced countries of the world has declined. India has further improved its export and import position with Asian countries. The diversified foreign trade is beneficial to India. 

2.However, China once again became the biggest trading partner of India in 2024.

This is due to the fact that India imports heavily from China in contrast to the low exports to China by India.  This resulted in the trade deficit and adverse balance of trade with China. While exports to China have remained stagnant, imports from China have surged. India has a trade deficit of $85.1 billion in the financial year 2024. A majority of items that India imports from China constitute electronics and electrical items. India imported $75 billion worth of mobiles, telephone from China. Other items include automatic data processing units, semiconductor devices and diodes and electronic integrated circuits. Thus, India is dependent upon China for 54% of its mobiles, telephones,56% of automatic data processing units, 70% of semiconductor devices and diodes and 32% of electronic integrated circuits and micro assemblies. Hence, it is incumbent upon India to lessen the overdependence on China. There is an urgent need to reverse the adverse balance of trade with China, considering the frequent tension between both countries on account of border disputes.

3.The trade relationship with the US is just the opposite. India is exporting more to the US than it is importing. Thus, the trade balance has been widening in recent years. India has a trade surplus of $36.7 Billion.

4.An important feature of India’s foreign trade is that India has a trade deficit with most of the major countries of the world. The trade deficit with Russia has skyrocketed from just $6.6 billion in 2022 to $57.2 billion in 2024 because of the import of oil at a concessional rate from Russia. It has become the chief supplier of POL to India.

5.India’s trade surplus with the Netherlands has increased because of the sanction against Russia by European countries. India refines 40-45% of crude oil imported from Russia and then it sells to the Netherlands which in turn sells POL to other European countries. 

Conclusion

1.The composition of India’s foreign trade has undergone substantial changes. The rate of increase in trade was slower in the pre reform period as compared to post reform which registered a higher rate. The growth rate of imports was higher than the growth rate of export, resulting in recurrent trade deficit. 

2. India’s major exports now include manufacturing goods such as engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and elite products, gems and jewelleries, textiles, electronic goods which constitute over 80% of India’s export basket. It is a remarkable achievement that India has transformed itself from a predominantly primary goods exporting country into a manufacturing and services goods exporting country. India’s dependence on food grain has also declined. Major import items constitute capital goods and intermediates which support the manufacturing sector in order to beat the unfavourable balance of trade in the post reform period, it would be necessary to add new commodities and services at competitive prices in the export basket. It is heartening to note that India’s services trade plus has increased due to a surge in IT exports. But the increase in services is not so much to offset the losses incurred by trade in merchandise. 

3.Over the years, India’s direction of trade has undergone substantial change with countries of Asia and Africa. The share of OECD countries, except North America, in India's overall export earnings declined continuously. Developing countries and OPEC emerged as the potential markets for Indian exports. The share of African and Asian developing countries showed an upward trend and these countries have emerged as good markets for Indian exports.

4.Though the volume and value of Indian exports has increased manifold, India’s share in world exports is still far behind China and other developing countries of the world. India’s share of global goods exports was 1.8% in 2023 and imports was 2.8%. Overall trade (merchandise plus services) exports US$770.18 billion and imports US$ 892.18 billion leading to  US$ -122 dollar as trade balance.

What is the dominant caste in India ? What is its role in Indian Politics?

Introduction 

1.India is a classic land of castes. Society has been formed on the basis of castes. But all the castes are not equal in strength. Their role and influence are also not equal. Some of the castes are very much organised and exercise a powerful influence on other castes. While other castes are disorganised and have lesser influence in the society. 

2.The concept of dominant caste was introduced by the great sociologist M N Srinivas in order to understand inter caste relations and conflicts. 

Definition of a dominant caste 

According to M N Sriniwas, a caste is dominant when it preponderates numerically over the other caste, when it also wields preponderate economic and political power and when it enjoys a high ritual status in the local caste hierarchy. 

Important dominant castes in India

States	Dominant castes
Andhra Pradesh	Reddys, Kammas, Kapus
Telangana	Reddys, Velamas
Kerala	Nayars, Izhavas
Maharashtra	Marathas
Gujarat	Baniya, Patidars
Bihar	Yadavs, Kurmis, Koeris, Maithil Brahmins, Bhumihars, Rajputs, Kayastha
Uttar Pradesh	Jats in Western UP, Yadavs in Eastern UP, Jatavs in the Entire UP, Muslims and Brahmins in certain pockets of UP
Haryana	Jats
Punjab	Khatri, Jats, Harijans
Rajasthan	Jats, Rajputs

  

Special features of dominant caste 

1.Decisive dominance - When a caste enjoys numerical preponderance, economic and political power, high education, high ritual status and high occupation, it is called that the particular caste is dominant in the area. 

For example, Yadavs of Bihar and UP, Jats in Western UP and Haryana.

2.When a caste enjoys one form of dominance, it is frequently able to acquire other forms of dominance also. For example, if a caste is numerically high but economically poor, it may use its numerical strength to gain political power and may assert dominance in the area. 

3.Dominance is not purely a local phenomena - Although a caste may be very small in a particular village but if it enjoys decisive dominance in the adjoining areas, that caste would be very much dominant because of its extensive network and so, the dominant caste of that village will have to accommodate itself with the caste which enjoys regional dominance. 

4.Rivalries and conflict between the dominant castes - Every state has more than one dominant caste. These castes are always involved in rivalries and conflicts to secure political and economic power. For example, dominant castes of Vokkalingas and Lingayats jostle each other to grab power in every general election in the state of Karnataka. Similarly, the dominant castes of Reddys and Kammas fight each other in the election to capture power in the state of Andhra Pradesh. In UP, the dominant caste of Yadavs and Jatavs fought with each other for the last 30 years to capture power. This assertiveness of Jatav caste, which has been untouchables, propelled Miss Mayawati as the chief minister of UP for four times. 

Functions of dominant caste 

1.It acts as the reference group for other castes in the process of sanskritization. It sets the model for the majority of people living in the rural areas. For example, the dominant caste of Patidars in the district of Kheira in Gujarat has effects on the culture of all other caste groups living in the district. 

2.Dominant caste acted as a watchdog to preserve the assigned caste occupation. The prominent people of the dominant caste prevented the members of one caste from taking over the hereditary occupation of another caste. The dominant caste would ignore minor changes in the rituals and style of life of a low caste. But it would punish the low caste if it refused to perform the traditional services or when it appropriated an important high caste symbol. For example, when after the 1921 census, Yadavas of Bihar decided to call themselves Kshatriya and donned sacred thread, the dominant higher castes like Rajputs and Bhumihars resented very much and it erupted violence.    

3.Dominant caste have grabbed political power, tapped economical resources and availed of maximum educational opportunities. They captured government services and political favours to the exclusion of others. They have got ample representation in state assemblies and cabinets. Except for religious and ritual status, they are more influential than the brahmins. 

4.According to M N Sriniwas, where the dominant caste are non brahmins, they are greater exploiters of lower caste and other backward castes. The dominant castes have vested interest in keeping the lower caste poor and ignorant. The dominant caste people fear that if the lower caste people become educated and conscious of their rights, they will be a threat to the dominant castes. Since, most of the lands are owned by dominant castes and most of the lower castes and backward castes are agricultural labour, it is feared by the dominant caste that in case of better economic status or deviation from the traditional occupation, the agricultural activities would be hard hit.  The attempt to dominate and resistance to dominance leads to caste conflicts. For example, when the untouchables decide to give up the services like removing the dead animals from the houses of the higher castes or if the untouchable bridegroom passes mounted on the horse, through the streets of villages dominated by dominant castes. It is very much resented and sometimes he is also beaten up. This is the regular phenomena to be observed in the rural areas of northern India. 

Role of dominant castes in Indian Politics

1.With the introduction of Panchayati raj system, The dominant castes have extended their areas of influence in village, taluks and districts. The political power has bestowed them with economic strength, good education and government jobs. 

2.Reservation of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes further strengthened the position and power of Jatavs and Yadavs in UP to assert their political powers. Politicians find castes as a useful instrument during elections. Competition among major castes groups is often observed in Indian states. 

3.Despite the erosion of its ideological basis, the caste has become an instrument of social change. Caste identities have taken new forms of articulation resulting in the rise of identity politics. 

4.Caste based politics has given voice and representation to historically marginalised communities and castes. Political parties have recognised the importance of caste based mobilisation to address the specific needs and aspirations of different caste groups. Dominant caste based political parties have emerged, focussing on the interests and concerns of particular castes, contributing to a more diverse and inclusive political system. For example, Rashtriya Janata Dal in Bihar is headed by Lalu Yadav and this party represents the dominant caste of Yadav. Similarly, JDU of Nitish Kumar, represents the dominant Kurmi caste.

5. Caste based politics has fostered solidarity and a sense of community among members of specific castes, promoting social cohesion and a shared identity.

6.Caste based organisations and movements have played a role in raising the awareness about social injustices, advocating for social welfare measures. 

7.Dominant castes influence political socialisation. The individuals are socialised into specific caste identities and affiliations. 

8.The dominant castes also perpetuate social divisions, reinforcing inequalities, and limited opportunities for social mobility.  

9.Dominant castes often lead to heightened political and social tensions. The competing dominant castes groups fight for power, resources and representation. It can create divisions in the society leading to conflict, violence and social fragmentation. 

10.The dominant castes' politics often undermine the ideals of democracy because it does not believe in equal representation, fairness and inclusive politics. It wants to grab as much as power to the exclusion of others . This leads to an impact upon competency and compromising the quality of good governance. It also acts against the principle of social justice. 

Conclusion

1.The role of dominant castes in Indian politics cannot be underestimated. It has significantly influenced electoral dynamics and political alliances. 

2.The dominant castes politics has led to the regrouping of marginalised castes. For example, to fight the dominant castes of Yadavs in Bihar, the marginalised castes of carpenter, ironsmith, goldsmith, dhanuks, mushar, paswans, pasmanda muslims combined together with lesser dominant castes of Kurmi, Koeris and formed the government under Nitish Kumar for the last 20 years. 

3.The dominant castes have helped in the mobilisation of people. Political party secured electoral support and addressed the concerns of dominant castes. However, the dominant castes' politics perpetuated divisions in the rural areas and so to fight against their politics, the marginalised castes have regrouped themselves and given a tough competition to them by aligning with less dominant castes.  

4.With the democratisation of the polity in India since independence and several welfare measures adopted by the central and state governments,the vertical solidarity of interdependence of caste has been very much weakened in rural areas. The Jajmani system is now on the brink. But the horizontal solidarity of castes have strengthened. The biggest gainer of this horizontal solidarity has been the dominant caste because of their resources,political power and better networking. That’s why the dominant caste of Jats, Yadavs, Rajputs, Bhumihars, Brahmins have become more powerful politically in northern India and tilt the political outcome in the normal situation.  

What was the stand of the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru on the subject of reservation to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes?

 

Why is it in the news?

1.While campaigning in the election for the 18th Lok Sabha in Bihar, the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, said that “had B.R. Ambedkar not been there , the former Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru would not have implemented the quota for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.” 

2.The Prime Minister was referring to a letter written by Nehru ji in 1961 to the chief ministers where he said that continued reservation could affect meritocracy. 

What was the stand of Nehru ji on the reservation to SC, ST and Backward classes ?

1.Nehru ji presented the objective resolution before the constituent assembly on 13th December, 1946 whereby, he gave the vision and philosophy of the constitution of India. Later on, this objective resolution became the foundation of the Preamble of the constitution. In the objective resolution, Nehru Ji said that special measures should be taken in favour of minorities, backward and tribal areas, depressed and other backward classes. He was the first politician who used the term other backward classes (OBCs) in the constituent assembly. The preamble of our constitution talks about social economic and political justice which means that the constitution wants to create a society without discrimination on any grounds like caste, creed, sex, religion. 

2.On the advice of constitutional advisor, B.N. Rau, the Directive Principles of State Policy was borrowed from Ireland and was included in our constitution under part IV between articles 36 to 51. According to article 46, the state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. 

3.Article 330 of the Indian constitution provides for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of the people and Article 332 provides for reservation of scheduled caste and scheduled tribes in state legislative assemblies. Thus, 84 seats are reserved for scheduled castes and 47 seats for scheduled tribes in the Lok Sabha. Similarly, state assemblies have reserved seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. 

4.According to Article 335, the claims of the members of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the union or of a state. It was on the basis of this article, the Supreme Court in the Indira Sawhney case (1992) put a cap of 50% reservation in government jobs so that the efficiency of the administration is not compromised. Now, the provision for reservation in government jobs for scheduled castes is 15%, for scheduled tribes 7.5%, for socially and educationally backward classes 27% and economically weaker sections 10%. In total 59.5% government jobs are reserved in India.  

5.According to article 340, the President of India may by order appoint a commission consisting of such persons as he thinks fits to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes within the territory of India and the difficulties under which they labour and to make recommendation as to the steps that should be taken by the union or any state to remove such difficulties and improve their condition. It was because of these provisions that the government of India appointed the Kaka Kalekar committee in 1952 to investigate the condition of backward classes.  But because of the opposition of the then Home Minister,G.B. Pant, the Kalekar committee report was not tabled before the Parliament for discussion. The Home Minister objected to the recommendation of the committee because it was based upon the condition of different castes of backward classes. 

6.In the case of state of Madras vs Champakam Dorai Rajan (1951), the Supreme Court affirmed the judgement of the Madras High Court. It struck down the order issued by the Madras Government that provided for the proportionate reservation of seats in the government medical and engineering colleges for different communities with the object of promoting the educational interest of the backward classes under article 46. The court held that the reservation was based upon religion, race and caste and therefore, it violated articles 15 and 29 (2) of our constitution. The Supreme Court also held that the Directive Principles cannot in any way override or abridge fundamental rights. Rather Directives Principles of State Policy should act as subsidiary to fundamental rights. That judgement led to the insertion of clause 4 in article 15 which said that nothing in this article or in clause 2 of article 29 shall prevent the state from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens of or for the scheduled castes or the scheduled tribes. Similarly, clause 4 in article 16 was added which said that nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the state, was not adequately represented in the services under the state. 

7.Later on, by the 93rd amendment act, 2005, the Congress government inserted clause 5 in article 15 by making special provision for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes with regard to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions, whether aided or unaided by the state, other than the minority educational institution referred to in clause 1 of article 30.  

8.Nehru ji wanted reservation on the basis of economic criteria. He was of the view that reservation to backward groups should be based upon the economic status of the backward classes. He believed that education was the primary tool for empowering backward classes.  He wanted to give elementary free education and scholarships to all students pursuing literary subjects and technical and scientific education. He said that if reservations were given on a communal or caste basis, the bright and able persons would be sidelined and our country would come under the danger of becoming a second rate or third rate state. 

9. To conclude - Nehru ji was ideologically opposed to any kind of reservation on the basis of caste but he was also conscious of the fact that scheduled caste and scheduled tribes were to be given reservation in Parliament and state legislature and government job and that’s why, he brought first amendment act in 1951 whereby, he inserted clause 4 in article 15 and clause 4 in article 16 of constitution for the advancement of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and socially and educationally  backward classes in our country. 

Reservation to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and socially and educationally  backward classes in government jobs was meant to correct the historical wrongs in the caste ridden society of India. It has also been observed that most of the benefits of the reservation have been cornered by the advanced groups among these weaker sections of the society. The dominant castes or tribes have been the major beneficiaries of the reservation policy of the government of India and state governments. The rest of the weaker sections did not get much benefits from the reservation policy. Hence, it is incumbent upon the government to give all kinds of economic assistance like scholarship, free lodging and fooding, lowering the criteria for selection, and awakening among weaker sections of the society by instilling in them that it is the education that brings changes in the social status of a person and so maximum efforts should be made to enhance the level of literacy among SCs, STs and OBCs, in addition to the present status of reservation to weaker sections of our society.