What is the dominant caste in India ? What is its role in Indian Politics?

Introduction 

1.India is a classic land of castes. Society has been formed on the basis of castes. But all the castes are not equal in strength. Their role and influence are also not equal. Some of the castes are very much organised and exercise a powerful influence on other castes. While other castes are disorganised and have lesser influence in the society. 

2.The concept of dominant caste was introduced by the great sociologist M N Srinivas in order to understand inter caste relations and conflicts. 

Definition of a dominant caste 

According to M N Sriniwas, a caste is dominant when it preponderates numerically over the other caste, when it also wields preponderate economic and political power and when it enjoys a high ritual status in the local caste hierarchy. 

Important dominant castes in India

States	Dominant castes
Andhra Pradesh	Reddys, Kammas, Kapus
Telangana	Reddys, Velamas
Kerala	Nayars, Izhavas
Maharashtra	Marathas
Gujarat	Baniya, Patidars
Bihar	Yadavs, Kurmis, Koeris, Maithil Brahmins, Bhumihars, Rajputs, Kayastha
Uttar Pradesh	Jats in Western UP, Yadavs in Eastern UP, Jatavs in the Entire UP, Muslims and Brahmins in certain pockets of UP
Haryana	Jats
Punjab	Khatri, Jats, Harijans
Rajasthan	Jats, Rajputs

  

Special features of dominant caste 

1.Decisive dominance - When a caste enjoys numerical preponderance, economic and political power, high education, high ritual status and high occupation, it is called that the particular caste is dominant in the area. 

For example, Yadavs of Bihar and UP, Jats in Western UP and Haryana.

2.When a caste enjoys one form of dominance, it is frequently able to acquire other forms of dominance also. For example, if a caste is numerically high but economically poor, it may use its numerical strength to gain political power and may assert dominance in the area. 

3.Dominance is not purely a local phenomena - Although a caste may be very small in a particular village but if it enjoys decisive dominance in the adjoining areas, that caste would be very much dominant because of its extensive network and so, the dominant caste of that village will have to accommodate itself with the caste which enjoys regional dominance. 

4.Rivalries and conflict between the dominant castes - Every state has more than one dominant caste. These castes are always involved in rivalries and conflicts to secure political and economic power. For example, dominant castes of Vokkalingas and Lingayats jostle each other to grab power in every general election in the state of Karnataka. Similarly, the dominant castes of Reddys and Kammas fight each other in the election to capture power in the state of Andhra Pradesh. In UP, the dominant caste of Yadavs and Jatavs fought with each other for the last 30 years to capture power. This assertiveness of Jatav caste, which has been untouchables, propelled Miss Mayawati as the chief minister of UP for four times. 

Functions of dominant caste 

1.It acts as the reference group for other castes in the process of sanskritization. It sets the model for the majority of people living in the rural areas. For example, the dominant caste of Patidars in the district of Kheira in Gujarat has effects on the culture of all other caste groups living in the district. 

2.Dominant caste acted as a watchdog to preserve the assigned caste occupation. The prominent people of the dominant caste prevented the members of one caste from taking over the hereditary occupation of another caste. The dominant caste would ignore minor changes in the rituals and style of life of a low caste. But it would punish the low caste if it refused to perform the traditional services or when it appropriated an important high caste symbol. For example, when after the 1921 census, Yadavas of Bihar decided to call themselves Kshatriya and donned sacred thread, the dominant higher castes like Rajputs and Bhumihars resented very much and it erupted violence.    

3.Dominant caste have grabbed political power, tapped economical resources and availed of maximum educational opportunities. They captured government services and political favours to the exclusion of others. They have got ample representation in state assemblies and cabinets. Except for religious and ritual status, they are more influential than the brahmins. 

4.According to M N Sriniwas, where the dominant caste are non brahmins, they are greater exploiters of lower caste and other backward castes. The dominant castes have vested interest in keeping the lower caste poor and ignorant. The dominant caste people fear that if the lower caste people become educated and conscious of their rights, they will be a threat to the dominant castes. Since, most of the lands are owned by dominant castes and most of the lower castes and backward castes are agricultural labour, it is feared by the dominant caste that in case of better economic status or deviation from the traditional occupation, the agricultural activities would be hard hit.  The attempt to dominate and resistance to dominance leads to caste conflicts. For example, when the untouchables decide to give up the services like removing the dead animals from the houses of the higher castes or if the untouchable bridegroom passes mounted on the horse, through the streets of villages dominated by dominant castes. It is very much resented and sometimes he is also beaten up. This is the regular phenomena to be observed in the rural areas of northern India. 

Role of dominant castes in Indian Politics

1.With the introduction of Panchayati raj system, The dominant castes have extended their areas of influence in village, taluks and districts. The political power has bestowed them with economic strength, good education and government jobs. 

2.Reservation of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes further strengthened the position and power of Jatavs and Yadavs in UP to assert their political powers. Politicians find castes as a useful instrument during elections. Competition among major castes groups is often observed in Indian states. 

3.Despite the erosion of its ideological basis, the caste has become an instrument of social change. Caste identities have taken new forms of articulation resulting in the rise of identity politics. 

4.Caste based politics has given voice and representation to historically marginalised communities and castes. Political parties have recognised the importance of caste based mobilisation to address the specific needs and aspirations of different caste groups. Dominant caste based political parties have emerged, focussing on the interests and concerns of particular castes, contributing to a more diverse and inclusive political system. For example, Rashtriya Janata Dal in Bihar is headed by Lalu Yadav and this party represents the dominant caste of Yadav. Similarly, JDU of Nitish Kumar, represents the dominant Kurmi caste.

5. Caste based politics has fostered solidarity and a sense of community among members of specific castes, promoting social cohesion and a shared identity.

6.Caste based organisations and movements have played a role in raising the awareness about social injustices, advocating for social welfare measures. 

7.Dominant castes influence political socialisation. The individuals are socialised into specific caste identities and affiliations. 

8.The dominant castes also perpetuate social divisions, reinforcing inequalities, and limited opportunities for social mobility.  

9.Dominant castes often lead to heightened political and social tensions. The competing dominant castes groups fight for power, resources and representation. It can create divisions in the society leading to conflict, violence and social fragmentation. 

10.The dominant castes' politics often undermine the ideals of democracy because it does not believe in equal representation, fairness and inclusive politics. It wants to grab as much as power to the exclusion of others . This leads to an impact upon competency and compromising the quality of good governance. It also acts against the principle of social justice. 

Conclusion

1.The role of dominant castes in Indian politics cannot be underestimated. It has significantly influenced electoral dynamics and political alliances. 

2.The dominant castes politics has led to the regrouping of marginalised castes. For example, to fight the dominant castes of Yadavs in Bihar, the marginalised castes of carpenter, ironsmith, goldsmith, dhanuks, mushar, paswans, pasmanda muslims combined together with lesser dominant castes of Kurmi, Koeris and formed the government under Nitish Kumar for the last 20 years. 

3.The dominant castes have helped in the mobilisation of people. Political party secured electoral support and addressed the concerns of dominant castes. However, the dominant castes' politics perpetuated divisions in the rural areas and so to fight against their politics, the marginalised castes have regrouped themselves and given a tough competition to them by aligning with less dominant castes.  

4.With the democratisation of the polity in India since independence and several welfare measures adopted by the central and state governments,the vertical solidarity of interdependence of caste has been very much weakened in rural areas. The Jajmani system is now on the brink. But the horizontal solidarity of castes have strengthened. The biggest gainer of this horizontal solidarity has been the dominant caste because of their resources,political power and better networking. That’s why the dominant caste of Jats, Yadavs, Rajputs, Bhumihars, Brahmins have become more powerful politically in northern India and tilt the political outcome in the normal situation.  

What was the stand of the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru on the subject of reservation to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes?

 

Why is it in the news?

1.While campaigning in the election for the 18th Lok Sabha in Bihar, the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, said that “had B.R. Ambedkar not been there , the former Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru would not have implemented the quota for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.” 

2.The Prime Minister was referring to a letter written by Nehru ji in 1961 to the chief ministers where he said that continued reservation could affect meritocracy. 

What was the stand of Nehru ji on the reservation to SC, ST and Backward classes ?

1.Nehru ji presented the objective resolution before the constituent assembly on 13th December, 1946 whereby, he gave the vision and philosophy of the constitution of India. Later on, this objective resolution became the foundation of the Preamble of the constitution. In the objective resolution, Nehru Ji said that special measures should be taken in favour of minorities, backward and tribal areas, depressed and other backward classes. He was the first politician who used the term other backward classes (OBCs) in the constituent assembly. The preamble of our constitution talks about social economic and political justice which means that the constitution wants to create a society without discrimination on any grounds like caste, creed, sex, religion. 

2.On the advice of constitutional advisor, B.N. Rau, the Directive Principles of State Policy was borrowed from Ireland and was included in our constitution under part IV between articles 36 to 51. According to article 46, the state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. 

3.Article 330 of the Indian constitution provides for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of the people and Article 332 provides for reservation of scheduled caste and scheduled tribes in state legislative assemblies. Thus, 84 seats are reserved for scheduled castes and 47 seats for scheduled tribes in the Lok Sabha. Similarly, state assemblies have reserved seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. 

4.According to Article 335, the claims of the members of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the union or of a state. It was on the basis of this article, the Supreme Court in the Indira Sawhney case (1992) put a cap of 50% reservation in government jobs so that the efficiency of the administration is not compromised. Now, the provision for reservation in government jobs for scheduled castes is 15%, for scheduled tribes 7.5%, for socially and educationally backward classes 27% and economically weaker sections 10%. In total 59.5% government jobs are reserved in India.  

5.According to article 340, the President of India may by order appoint a commission consisting of such persons as he thinks fits to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes within the territory of India and the difficulties under which they labour and to make recommendation as to the steps that should be taken by the union or any state to remove such difficulties and improve their condition. It was because of these provisions that the government of India appointed the Kaka Kalekar committee in 1952 to investigate the condition of backward classes.  But because of the opposition of the then Home Minister,G.B. Pant, the Kalekar committee report was not tabled before the Parliament for discussion. The Home Minister objected to the recommendation of the committee because it was based upon the condition of different castes of backward classes. 

6.In the case of state of Madras vs Champakam Dorai Rajan (1951), the Supreme Court affirmed the judgement of the Madras High Court. It struck down the order issued by the Madras Government that provided for the proportionate reservation of seats in the government medical and engineering colleges for different communities with the object of promoting the educational interest of the backward classes under article 46. The court held that the reservation was based upon religion, race and caste and therefore, it violated articles 15 and 29 (2) of our constitution. The Supreme Court also held that the Directive Principles cannot in any way override or abridge fundamental rights. Rather Directives Principles of State Policy should act as subsidiary to fundamental rights. That judgement led to the insertion of clause 4 in article 15 which said that nothing in this article or in clause 2 of article 29 shall prevent the state from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens of or for the scheduled castes or the scheduled tribes. Similarly, clause 4 in article 16 was added which said that nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the state, was not adequately represented in the services under the state. 

7.Later on, by the 93rd amendment act, 2005, the Congress government inserted clause 5 in article 15 by making special provision for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes with regard to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions, whether aided or unaided by the state, other than the minority educational institution referred to in clause 1 of article 30.  

8.Nehru ji wanted reservation on the basis of economic criteria. He was of the view that reservation to backward groups should be based upon the economic status of the backward classes. He believed that education was the primary tool for empowering backward classes.  He wanted to give elementary free education and scholarships to all students pursuing literary subjects and technical and scientific education. He said that if reservations were given on a communal or caste basis, the bright and able persons would be sidelined and our country would come under the danger of becoming a second rate or third rate state. 

9. To conclude - Nehru ji was ideologically opposed to any kind of reservation on the basis of caste but he was also conscious of the fact that scheduled caste and scheduled tribes were to be given reservation in Parliament and state legislature and government job and that’s why, he brought first amendment act in 1951 whereby, he inserted clause 4 in article 15 and clause 4 in article 16 of constitution for the advancement of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and socially and educationally  backward classes in our country. 

Reservation to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and socially and educationally  backward classes in government jobs was meant to correct the historical wrongs in the caste ridden society of India. It has also been observed that most of the benefits of the reservation have been cornered by the advanced groups among these weaker sections of the society. The dominant castes or tribes have been the major beneficiaries of the reservation policy of the government of India and state governments. The rest of the weaker sections did not get much benefits from the reservation policy. Hence, it is incumbent upon the government to give all kinds of economic assistance like scholarship, free lodging and fooding, lowering the criteria for selection, and awakening among weaker sections of the society by instilling in them that it is the education that brings changes in the social status of a person and so maximum efforts should be made to enhance the level of literacy among SCs, STs and OBCs, in addition to the present status of reservation to weaker sections of our society.

What is a Tropical Cyclone ? How does it originate ? What is the difference between Tropical Cyclone and a temperate cyclone? Remedial measures.

 Why is it in the news?

1.Cyclone Remal killed 16 people, snapped power links to millions in India and Bangladesh. Strong gales and heavy rain brought by the cyclone Remal lashed the coastline of India and Bangladesh on Monday 27/05/2024, killing 16 people and cutting electricity supply to millions of people in both the countries. The cyclone is blowing at the speed of 135 km/hr and crossed the area around the southern port of Mongla in Bangladesh and adjoining Sagar island in West Bengal, making landfall on Sunday at about 9 pm. 

2.Rain flooded roads in the capital Dhaka, flooded the coastal areas in the Sunderbans. The storm has been blowing since last night. Around 1 million people (8 lakh in Bangladesh and around 2 lakh in India)  were shifted to shelter places.

3.The storm is expected to move Northeast and gradually weaken further into a deep depression by afternoon, bringing more rain to states in the north east region. 

4.At least 15000 houses were damaged in West Bengal. NDRF teams have been deployed in various parts of various districts of WB and rescue operations are underway. Both the central and state governments are taking necessary actions to save the lives of people by sending them into shelter places. 

Introduction

1.Tropical cyclones are characterised by destructive winds, storm surges and exceptional levels of rainfall leading to flooding in coastal areas. Winds go up to 200 km/hour. Rainfall takes place 50 cm per day for several  consecutive days. Strong winds blow anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere while in the southern hemisphere, the wind blows in the clockwise direction. The damages on account of tropical cyclones are not only limited to coastal areas but they also spread to the interior areas. 

2.India is one of the worst cyclone affected areas of the world. About 8% of the total land area is vulnerable to tropical cyclones. On an average 5-6 tropical cyclones are formed in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea every year. However the eastern coast of India is more prone to tropical cyclones and around 80% of the total tropical cyclones strike the eastern coast of India. 

3.There are two important periods for the occurrence of tropical cyclones- May to June and the second period is between September to December. 

4.Principle dangers from the cyclones are strong winds, torrential rain and high tidal waves called storm surges. 

Kinds of cyclone 

1.Three types of cyclones are- one is tropical cyclone, second is severe cyclone and third is super cyclone. When the storm of a cyclone blows at a speed of less than 74 miles/hr it is called a tropical cyclone. When it gets intense and the speed is between 75 to 120 miles/hr then it is called a severe cyclone. When the speed increases for more than 120 miles/hr then it becomes a super cyclone. 

4. How do the cyclones originate? 

Cyclone is a general term used by meteorologists to describe any rotating, organised cloud that originates over water. 

3.Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges that are tidal waves causing floods in the coastal areas. They are known as cyclones in the Indian ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic and NorthEast Pacific, Typhoons in the South China sea and Western Pacific and Willy Willies in the Western Australia. Cyclones are usually clockwise and hurricanes are counter clockwise. 

4.When the atmospheric pressure is low over a large water body that is still and the temperature of the water is more than 27 degree C. They form into a cyclone. The density of air in our atmosphere differs from one place to another place. They are not the same everywhere. When there is low atmospheric pressure on a large water body on the earth surface, they turn into cyclones. This process of thin air circulating, strengthening and developing into cyclonic  formation is  called cyclogenesis. When the atmospheric pressure is low and the warm air rises to fill the gaps and cold air goes down as they have moisture in it. The warm air becomes more warm and it rises rapidly. Thus, creating more gaps so the surrounding air rushes in to fill the place. This filling air travels at greater speed and from longer distances. When they reach the area, instead of filling the gap they start circulating thus creating a spiral. After that any air travelling to fill the gap has to join the spiral because the air cannot pass through the spiral directly. Usually tropical cyclones range from 100 kms to 2000 kms in diameter. When a large amount of air is rushing to fill the gap, they form huge cyclones and the spiral structures become larger and larger, penetrating the clouds and thus creating thunderstorms. The tropical cyclones can grow up to the height of 10 kms and they last three to seven days depending upon the speed of the storm, how far it is from the land and how big it is. Cyclones usually fade away or die when they cross the land area. There is a misconception that buildings and other interruptions on the land surfaces act as a barrier and stop the cyclone. But that is not true. When the cyclonic storm crosses the land surface, the main source of the cyclone, that is the warm water, is taken away. Cyclones work with moist warm air. So when it crosses a cold water surface or land surface., they die.  

Composition of the cyclone 

1.Tropical cyclone is composed of an eye which is a region of calm with subsiding air. Around the eye is the eyewall where there is a strong spiralling assent  of air to greater height reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, torrential rain occurs here. Along the eyewall, rain bends radiate and trans of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region. The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian in the Indian ocean is between 600-1200 kms. The cyclones create storm surges and they inundate the coastal lowlands. 

Difference between tropical cyclone and temperate cyclone

1.Tropical cyclones are formed between 5 degree latitude to 30 degree latitude in the north and south of the latitude. . Cyclones formed around 20 degree latitude on either side of the hemisphere are very severe. 

2. Temperate cyclones are formed between 30 degree to 60 degree north and south of the latitude. 

3.The temperate (extra tropicals) cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not present in the tropical cyclones. 

4.temperate cyclone covers a larger area and can originate over a land and a sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only over the warm seas and on reaching land, they peter out. 

5.The temperate cyclones affect a much larger area as compared to tropical cyclones. 

6.The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it is more destructive than a temperate cyclone. 

7.The temperate cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones move from east to west. 

Remedial measures

1.Construction of cyclones shelters.

2.Engineered structures instead of thatched houses.

3.Flood management.

4.Evacuation

5.Coastal shelterbelts like by planting strong rooted trees, avoidance of construction of houses near the coastal belts. 

6.Cyclone warning system.

7.Cyclone tracking

8.Cyclone detection radars, satellites. 

Post disaster rehabilitation measures

1.Evacuation

2.search and rescue operations

3.Providing drinking water

4.Provision of food packets

5.Debris clearance.

6.Reopening of roads.

7.Reestablishment of communication networks in remote areas

8.Medical assistance.

9.Provision for temporary fooding and lodging

10.Disaster assessment

11.Reallocation of budget to rehabilitate the affected people so that they can earn livelihood.

Discretionary powers of the Governor of a state

 

Why is it in the news ?

1.Kerala High Court quashed Governor’s nomination to university senate.

2.The four students nominated by the Governor to the university senate were set aside by the Kerala High Court. 

3. Those students who were forwarded from the Kerala University to Rajbhawan were not nominated by the Governor but the Governor instead nominated four students in the senate of Kerala University and they were alleged to be aligned with Sangh Parivar. Students who did not find a nomination from the Governor in spite of the recommendation from the Kerala University, filed a petition in the Kerala High Court. 

4.The court said that no single factor of the nominated students is shown superior to those of the petitioners. The Court directed the Governor to make a fresh nomination to the senate of  the Kerala University within six weeks. 

5.The court observed that there is no unbridled power vested with the Governor while making  the nomination to the university senate in his capacity as the chancellor of the university. If the nomination made is contrary to the requirement of the statute or if the relevant factors were not considered or if irrelevant factors were considered in making the decisions, the nomination will have to be interfered with by the constitutional courts. 

6.The court held that any arbitrary use of power violates not only the rule of equality enshrined in article 14 of the constitution but also the rule of non-discrimination under article 16. 

7.The Court held that even in the exercise of the discretionary power, the requirements of reasonableness, rationality, impartiality, fairness and equity are inherent to such exercise and can never be according to any private opinion. 

What is the discretionary power of the Governor of a state?

1.Ours is a parliamentary form of Government whereby the Governor of a state is the nominal executive while the real power is vested in the council of ministers headed by the chief minister. 

2.Both the President of India and the Governor of a state are the nominal head of the state. By the 42nd amendment act, the President is bound to accept the advice of the council of ministers. But no such provisions have been made with respect to the Governor. 

3. According to article 163 of our constitution, there shall be a council of ministers with the chief minister as the head to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in so far as he is required to exercise his functions in his discretion. Thus, unlike the President of India who has been reduced to be the nominal head of the union government, the Governor of a state is vested with discretionary power also. When the Governor  acts at his discretion, he is not bound to accept the advice of his council of ministers. 

4.The Governor has discretionary power in following cases -

• Reservation of a bill for the consideration of the President of India under article 200.

• Recommendation of the imposition of the President’s rule in the state under article 356. 

• When appointed as administrator of an adjoining union territory under article 239 (1).

• Under the Sixth schedule the Governor of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are empowered to settle the dispute between the Government of Assam Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram and autonomous tribal district councils with respect to the sharing of the royalties that accrue from the lease of mining rights.

• The decision taken by the Governor with regard to the amount payable to the district council is final and the court cannot interfere with. 

Situational discretion 

1.When no party gets a clear cut majority in the general election of the state assembly, the Governor can appoint a leader as the chief minister who is likely to prove his majority on the floor of the House.  

2.When the chief minister suddenly dies and the party in power is not in the position to elect a leader as the successor, the Governor can appoint a leader as the chief minister.

3.When the council of ministers has lost the majority in the state assembly, the Governor is empowered to dismiss the chief minister and the council of ministers. 

4.The governor can dissolve a state assembly when the council of ministers has lost its majority on the floor of the House and no other party is in the position to form the alternate government. 

Constitutional discretionary power

1.The Governor has certain special responsibilities to discharge according to the directives issued by the President of India under article 371 (A) to (J). These are : 

• Establishment of separate development boards for Vidarbha and Marathwada. 

•  Establishment of separate development boards for Saurashtra and Kutch.

• With respect to law and order in the state of Nagaland.

• With respect to the administration of the tribal areas of Assam.

• With regard to the administration of hill areas of Manipur State.

• Social and economic advancement of the different sections of the population of Sikkim. 

• Law and order of Arunachal Pradesh.

• Establishment of separate development boards for Hyderabad and Karnataka region.  

Misuse of discretionary power 

1.In 1967, the West Bengal Governor Dharmaveer dismissed the chief minister Ajay Mukherjee on the plea that Ajay Mukherjee did not convene the legislative assembly at an early date. 

2.The U.P. Governor B. Gopala Reddy dismissed the chief minister Charan Singh in 1970 even though the chief minister was ready to convene the session of assembly to prove majority. 

3.The Governor of Haryana B.N. Chakravarty allowed the chief minister Rao Birendra Singh and Bansilal to continue for a long time without proving majority in the House. 

4.Andhra Pradesh Governor Ram Lal dismissed the chief minister N.T. Ramarao even though the chief minister was prepared to prove his majority in the House. 

5.Recently, Tamil Nadu Governor Mr. Ravi reserved the NEET bill for the consideration of the President of India because he was completely against the exemption of Tamil Nadu students from national eligibility cum entrance test. 

6.More than 100 times, the President’s rules were imposed upon states for one reason or another. After the installation of Janata Party government at the centre in 1977, nine Congress ruled states were put under President’s rule. Assemblies were dissolved and elections were held on the ground that Congress had lost the mandates of the people. Similarly, in 1980, when the Congress came back to power at the centre, President’s rule was imposed upon Janata Party Governments in nine states and assemblies were dissolved. Fresh elections in those states were ordered.  In 1993, after the demolition of Babri Masjid, the BJP ruled states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh were imposed under the President’s rule. Thus, we see that the discretionary power of the Governor has been misused several times on the dictates of the union government.

The real position of the Governor 

1.The constitution vests enormous power with the Governor of a state but in actual practice these powers are to be exercised by him only on the advice of the council of ministers. In addition he has been bestowed with discretionary powers in certain situations but these discretionary powers are subject to the judicial review by the Supreme Court and the High Courts. By different judgements, the Supreme Court and the High Courts curtailed the discretionary powers of the Governor. For example, in S.R. Bommai case (1994), the Supreme Court held that the test of majority would be done only on the floor of the House. Recently, the Supreme Court ordered the Kerala Governor to give assent to  the pending five bills passed by the state assembly. 

2.To conclude - The Governor is not only the head of the state but he is also the representative of the central government in the state. In order to strengthen the power of the union government, the provision was made to appoint a nominated Governor who continues in his office during the pleasure of the President of India. So, in the case of a Governor, there is no fixed tenure. He has to act on the dictates of the union government.  His position has been modelled like the Canadian Governor of a state.