What was Dharma in ancient India?

 Introduction

1.The logo of the Supreme Court of India is Yato Dharmah, Tato Jayah. It means where there is  a Dharma, there is victory. 

2.Dharma in ancient India had a wider connotation. It meant righteousness or virtue. 

3.According to Dr. S Radhakrishnan, every form of life, every group of men has its Dharma, which is the law of its beings. Dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth or things, adharma or vice is opposition to it. 

4.According to P.V. Kane, the writers of Dharma shastras meant by Dharma not a creed or religion but a mode of life or a code of conduct which regulated a man’s work and activities as a member of society and as an individual. Dharma was intended to enable man to reach the goal of human existence, that is, Moksha or liberation from the cycle of life and birth. 

5.According to Bhagwat Geeta, Dharma is equated with Rta, that is, cosmic order and it is treated as synonymous with truth. He who protects Dharma is protected in turn by Dharma (Dharmo Rakshati Rakshita). It is the law of nature which helps man to attain the supreme end of life (Moksha or Liberation). 

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Dharma is not religion

1.In common parlance, Dharma is equated with religion like Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism or the likes. The central theme of a religion is belief in God or supernatural beings which controls the universe, a messenger of God, a holy book and a set pattern of rituals to be observed during one's life and after his death. However, in Hinduism there are more than one single sacred books. Nor is there a concept of the messenger of God. It has no founder or central authority to command its followers. The concept of purity and pollution plays an important role in Hinduism. It is tolerant towards all other religions and does not believe in conversions. 

2.On the other hand, Dharma consciously aims at achieving a higher perfection of human life that is moksha. It involves knowledge of reality and performance of duties. Dharma is the foundation of social structure. It has universal application. It enjoins the members of the society to subject themselves to obligations and responsibility regardless of individual differences. 

3.Ancient law givers developed the concept of Varnasharam Dharma. It means that there are four varnas, that is, Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. There are four ashramas, that is, Brahmacharya, Grahashthya, Vanprastha and Sanyasa. Thus, every varna has specific functions in conjunction with the station of his life. For example, if a person comes from Brahmin Varna and he is below 25 years of age, his Dharma is to gain knowledge, to know the rituals Hindu religion to improve his personality and character, to observe celibacy, to offer gurudakshina after the completion of his study. Similarly, if a person comes from a Kshatriya varna and if he is below 25 years of age, his principal dharma is to learn and practise different kinds of weapons to safeguards himself and the society, to understand the intricacies of governance because in the next stage of life he will have to administer the community.  

Kinds of Dharma 

1.Manu speaks of Sapta Dharma or seven types of Dharmas. These are 

• Sanatan Dharma (eternal and unchanging principle of Dharma) - It consists of general rules and duties which are almost universal in nature. These are truth non-violence, non stealing, to observe celibacy, control of senses etc.

• Raj Dharma - It is the duty of the king to observe equalities of laws and treat everybody equally, to protect them from enemies from within the state and from without, that is, protection from external aggression. 

• Stree Dharma - It implies duties, responsibilities and purity of character of women. It signals fidelity towards their husbands.

• Dampatya Dharma (Conjugal) - Duties of husband and wife towards each other, their family, distant relatives and society.

• Swa Dharma -  It means duties of different varnas according to the station of his life. 

• Ashram Dharma - It refers to duties of a person in different stages of his life. 

• Apad Dharma - It refers to the specific rules to be followed by individuals when they are or the society is in deep crises. 

Importance of Dharma in ancient India 

1.In the book Arthashastra, Kautilya exhorts the king to be Dharma Pravartak, means protector of the Dharma. Thus, he laid stress upon the duty of the King was that he must ensure that there must not be any deviation from duties each Varna of the society had been assigned to. There must not be intermixture of Varna on account of anuloma or pratiloma marriages. The king must ensure that people lead virtuous lives. 

2.The emperor Ashoka, propagated Dhamma but it was not a sectarian faith. Although his personal religion was Buddhism, he never forced his subjects to follow the principles of Buddhism. Instead, he propagated the principle of Dhamma. The basic  objective was to preserve the social order. He ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to the Brahmins and Buddhist Monks and show mercy to the slaves and merchants. Above all Dhamma was meant to show firm devotion to the king. He emphasised compassion towards animals and proper behaviour towards relatives. It was meant to strengthen the institution of the family and the existing social classes. Tolerance was the cardinal principle of the Dhamma.  

3.In Deccan and South India,almost all kings of different dynasties like Pallavas, Chalukyas, Western Ganga, Eastern Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas, Pandyas took the title of Dharma Maharaja. The basic aim of all the kings was to protect the society and to ensure that nobody is allowed to deviate from duties that had been assigned to them according to the varna or the station of his life. It was their duties to ensure purity in the social relation and to prevent admixture of varnas. For example, when Kalbharas, the peasants revolted in Deccan and South India against the privileges of Brahmins in the 7th century AD, the three important powers like Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas jointly crushed the peasant revolts and re-established Brahmanical social order.  

Conclusion 

1.According to P.V. Kane, in Rig Veda, the word Dharma was used 56 times. It means to maintain order, religious and moral duties or virtue, the right way of living.

2.There are four goals of life in Hinduism. These are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Thus, Dharma is the basic foundation of life.

3.In Buddhism Dharma or Dhamma is basically the teachings of the Buddha. Similarly, in Jainism, Dharma refers to the teachings of the Tirthankaras. In Sikhism, Dharma refers to the path of righteousness, proper religious practices and performing moral duties. 

4.Thus,  Dharma has wider connotations in Hindu religion and philosophy. It is distinct from various religions of the world. It talks about the holding of social orders and realities of life. It does not talk about supernatural beings like various religions of  the world like Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or Jainism or others.  

What is the definition of Rape in India? Why convictions in rape cases are so much poor in India?

Why is it in the news?

1. The Supreme Court of India stayed on 26th March 2025, the Allahabad High Court judgement of March 17th which concluded that mere grabbing of  the breast of a minor victim or  breaking the string of her payjama to bring down her lower garment are not sufficient to constitute an offence of attempt to rape. The Supreme Court took Suo motu cognizance of the judgement. 

2. In the instant case, the alleged incident occurred on 10th November 2021 in the Kasganj District of UP. A minor girl was forcibly taken away beneath the culvert. She was grabbed by her breast. The accused broke the string of her pyjama. The girl screamed and shouted for help. The passerby came to her rescue and so both the accused fled away from the scene of crime.  

3.The mother of the victim filed an application before the special judge, POCSO Act  Kasganj District. The special judge registered the application. After recording the statements the special judge issued a summon to the accused. The accused filed a revision petition before the High Court, Allahabad against the summons order. The Allahabad  High Court stayed the operation  of summons. 

What is the definition of rape?

1. According to section 63 of Bhartiya Nyay Samhita, a man is said to commit a rape if he -

• Penetrates his penis to an extent into the vagina, mouth, urethra or anus of a woman or makes her do so with him or any other person or 

• Inserts to any extent any object or a part of the body into the vagina, urethra or anus of woman or makes her do so with him or any other person or 

• Manipulates any part of the body of a woman so as to cause penetration into the vagina, urethra, anus or any part of her body or makes her do so with him or any other person or 

• Applies his mouth to the vagina, anus or urethra of a woman or makes her do so with him or any other person.

2.These above acts constitute rape under the following circumstances -

• Against her will. It means that a sexual act has been performed in direct opposition to the woman’s conscious desire or intention. It implies active resistance, refusal and an absence of willingness on her part. For example, a man grabs a woman in a lonely place. He forces her to the ground and forcibly penetrates her vagina while she has been screaming and tries to push him away. This act of woman demonstrates her unwillingness and so her opposition is clear and against her will. During the medical examination, it may be possible that struggle marks or bruises may be found on the body of the victim. 

• Without her consent. It means absence of her voluntary agreement, no resistance is required, silence is not consent. For example, if a woman has been intoxicated and she is raped by penetration into her vagina either by penis or by objects, this consent is not consent because of her unconsiousness.  

• With consent when it is obtained under fear of death or hurt or injury to the person in which she is interested. 

• When consent is given under a misconception of fact, that is, when a woman believes the man is her husband who is not actually her husband.

• When the woman is unable to understand the nature and consequences of the act due to intoxication, unsoundness of mind or any other reason. 

• With or without consent if a woman is under 18 years of age. 

Exception : 

• A medical procedure or intervention does not constitute rape. 

• Sexual intercourse or sexual acts by a man with his own wife where the wife is not under 18 years of age is not rape. For example, if a man forces a 20 year old wife to have sexual intercourse against her will. This would not constitute a rape. 

3.Thus, the definition of rape of India is gender specific. It is not gender neutral. It does not recognise male or transgender as the victims of rape. It does not account for female perpetrators. 

4.The second feature of the definition of rape is that, there must be some kind of  penetration whether by penis or any body part or an object or manipulation. Thus, non-penetrative acts do not qualify as rape. But it  may fall under sexual harassment or assault. 

5.The third feature is consent. It must be free, voluntary and informed. Any coercion, deception, misrepresentation or incapacity negate consent. 

6.The fourth feature is age. If a girl is below 18 years of age, her consent is illegal and so it would  construte as rape.    

7.The fifth feature is the enhancement of punishment for gang rape of a woman or a minor girl below 12 years and the punishment extends to not less than 20 years which may extend to life and a fine.  

8. Similarly, rape of a woman by a police officer, a public servant under his custody, security forces, incharge of the management of jail or remand home, hospital, a teacher, a guardian or a relative of a woman or a person under whose control or dominance a woman is raped have to be awarded enhanced punishment extending to imprisonment for life. In case, the death is caused to the raped woman, the accused would be punished with the rigorous punishment which shall not be less than 20 years and which may extend to imprisonment for life or with death. 

What is the attempted rape?

1. Attempted rape means that a person takes all steps towards raping a woman but the act is not complete due to interruption, resistance or help extended by passerby after hearing the screaming or shouting of the victim. 

2. Section 62 explicitly states that whoever attempts to commit an offence punishable by this samhita with imprisonment for life or imprisonment or to cause such an offence to be committed, and in such attempt does any act towards the commission of the offence, shall, where no express provision is made by this samhita for the punishment for such attempt, be punished with imprisonment of any description provided for the offence for a term which may extend to one half of the imprisonment for life or as the case may be, one half of the longest term of imprisonment provided for that offence or with such fine as provided for the offence or with both. Thus, offence of rape shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term not less than one half of the minimum punishment prescribed for rape and up to one half of the maximum punishment or with fine or both. Thus, an attempt to rape carries a punishment for not less than five years or up to seven years plus a fine. 

3. To constitute an attempt to rape, three elements must be proved : 

• Intentions - The accused must have the clear intent  to commit rape.

• The accused must perform an overt act that goes beyond near preparation and directly moves towards committing rape. 

• The rape must not be completed due to certain external factors like escape of the victim girl/woman, interuption by woman/girl, voluntary withdrawal of the accused from the scene of crime without accomplishing the act or help by passerby. For example, a man drags a woman into a lonely place, tears her clothes and under garments and attempts to penetrate her vagina with his penis. She screams and shouts. Passerby people intervene and extend help to the victim woman. Thus, the intention of the rape is clear by the act of dragging or tearing clothes of victim. The Act goes beyond preparation. The rape is incomplete due to intruption. 

Secondly, a woman is lured by a man to his house and then he locks her inside the room and forces her to lie down on the bed. He starts unclothing her. The woman escapes from the window. This is a clear cut case of attempted rape.   

4. It should be noted that mere preparation to commit rape does not amount to punishable offence. The court uses the proximity rule to distinguish attempt from preparation. In the State of Maharashtra vs Mohammad Yakub (1980), attempt begins where preparation ends. In order to prove the attempt , the prosecution must establish that it has gone beyond the stage of preparation. 

Moreover, under section 120 of the BSA (Bhartiya Sakhya Adhiniyam), the court will presume that the victim did not consent if she tells the court that she did not consent to the sexual intercourse. Thus, the accused has the burden of proof to prove that he is innocent by providing credible evidence like prior relationship or explicit agreement to rebut the presumption.   

How the investigation of rape is conducted?

1. When a rape incident occurs, either the rape victim or her relative or someone on her behalf can lodge FIR under section 173 of BNSS (Bhartiya Nyay Suraksha Samhita). 

• If the crime has occurred outside the jurisdiction of a police station, an FIR under zero can be filed at the police station and then subsequently is transferred to the police station having the appropriate jurisdiction. 

• The identity of the victim must be protected under section 72 of the BNS, thereby, prohibiting public disclosure of her name or details. The investigating officer assigns a unique number to the victim and begins investigation by taking her statement and witnesses (if any) and proceeds to the scene of crime.

• Since, the rape is a cognizable offence, its non-registration would attract disciplinary proceedings against the erring police officer. The investigating officer inspect the scene of crime, collect physical evidence like semen, blood, hair, clothing and take photographs of the scene of crime depicting the sign of struggle (if any).   The visit of the scene of the crime must be done promptly to preserve evidence. Any delay would cause disappearance of evidence. The investigating officer must accompany a forensic expert for proper collection, sealing and labelling of evidence in tamper proof containers. 

• The victim must be taken to a registered medical practitioner for medical examination within 24 hours of the registration of FIR. However, the consent of the victim must be taken before examining her body. When consent is obtained, the doctor would examine the private part, injuries (if any), traces of semen, signs of struggle like bruises or scratches on her body. The doctor would also collect samples like vaginal swabs, nail scrapings and blood for intoxication tests. It is necessary that a female doctor conducts the above examination. It should be noted that the invasive two finger test has been prohibited to determine virginity or sexual history of the victim by the Supreme Court in the case of Lillu vs State of Haryana in 2013 as it violates the dignity of woman/girl and is irrelevant to consent. 

• The female police officer must be present during the examination of the victim girl/woman. The investigating officer collects clothes, weapons and objects used in the crime. He also collects CCTV footage, call records of victims and accused and relevant messages. 

• If the accused is identified , the police will arrest him without a warrant. The accused is medically examined to collect evidence like semen, DNA, injuries from resistance, the medical examination can be done forcibly if he refuses. The investigating officer records the statement of the accused. But confession made by the accused to a police officer is not admissible in the court of law unless recorded before a magistrate under section 186 of BNSS.   

• Once the investigation is completed, the charge sheet is prepared, supporting the allegations and it is produced in the court of jurisdiction within 90 days of the arrest of the accused where the offence is punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a term of ten years and in other cases 60 days. On the expiry of the said period of 90 days or 60 days as the case may be the accused person shall be released on failure if he is prepared to furnish bail. 

• The magistrate reviews the charge sheet and frames charges under section 246 of the BNSS. The case is then committed to a session court.  According to section 193 (3) (1) of BNSS, the investigation must be completed within two months for rape cases involving minors. According to section 24 (3) of BNSS, a female police officer should preferably investigate rape cases ensuring insensitivity. 

Why convictions in rape is so poor in India?

1. The conviction rate for rape cases in India hovers around 27-28% according to NCRB in 2018-2022. The rate of conviction is poor in India when compared with the UK (60.2%), Canada (42%). This is because several factors : 

• The judge to population ratio in India is 21 per million against 120 per million in the United States.

• Prolonged trials in India cause evidence degradation, witness fatigue and victims turning hostile under pressure. 

• Police in India is very much overburdened so much so that only 151 police personnel are available for 1 lakh people according to NCRB, 2021 compared to 225 policemen available per one lakh in the UK.

• India has fewer forensic labs causing delays in DNA analysis and examination of physical and biological evidence.

• Because of cultural stigma, most of the rape victims either withdraw complaints or become hostile during trial under pressure from the powerful family of the accused. This results into 90% of rape acquitals on account of reluctance of rape victim during trials. Moreover, witnesses also turn hostile during trial under pressure from the accused party. Since, most of the rape cases involve close relatives, the pressure is mounted upon the rape victim resulting into her being hostile during trial. 

• Delayed reporting of the rape cases further destroys evidence. 

• Under section 120 of BSA, it is presumed that there is no consent if the victim has not consented but this lack of consent is not absolute in the court for want of corroborative evidence from struggle marks on the scene of crime, injuries on the body of the victim and statements of witnesses.     

How convictions in rape can be raised in India?

1. Improving sensitisation of police personnels with regard to rape cases. 

2. Increasing forensic science laboratories (FSLs) from the present 40 to 100 equipping them with DNA sequencing tools and enforcing a 30 day report deadline. 

3. Ensuring the completion of trial in rape cases within 60 days by activating all fast track special courts. 

4. Increasing the number of judges from 21 to 50 per million. 

5. Providing mobile medical units in rural areas. 

6. Offering legal aid, counselling and witness protection in every district.

7. Swift compensation to victim/girl/woman. 

8. Installation of CCTV networks in cities and kasba. 

9. Launching awareness campaigns to educate youths.

10. Formation of woman safety committees which are to be linked to police helplines. 

11. Swift disposal of cases in the court because strong justice delivery reduces the incidence of the rape cases. 

Ways forward

Systematic modernisation of police infrastructure, scaling up of fast track courts, Increasing forensic capacity, strengthening victim support, shifting societal attitudes with regard to rape cases, liveraging technology, data collections and crime mapping, ensuring witness protection and forming woman safety committees at work places and otherwise would go a long way in increasing the conviction rates in rape cases and thereby, mitigating the occurrances of rape in India. 

Conclusion

It has been observed that most of the rape cases in India are committed by close relatives, guardians, friends and acquaintances. The new provision under section 64 provides for enhanced punishments for accused who are a relative or guardian or a teacher or a person in a position of trust and authority or in a position of control or dominance over a woman.  Similarly, under section 65, the rape on a minor girl attracts enhanced punishment which may extend to life imprisonment. Similarly, under section 69, sexual intercourse by making a false promise to marry a woman has been clearly described in the BNS and provides for 10 years punishment. 

To sum up, the new provisions from section 63 to 72 under BNS would be very much effective in controlling and mitigating the incidences of rape cases in India.  

Vice President of India, Powers and Functions.

 Why is it in the news?

14th Vice President of India, Shri Jagdeep Dhankar resigned from his post on the health ground on 21st July 2025. He had two years left for his term to complete. This is the first time that a Vice President tendered his resignation on the health issue. Earlier, V V Giri resigned from the post of Vice President to contest for President of India. R Venket Raman resigned from the Vice President when elected to the President of India in 1987.  

Roles and responsibilities of the Vice President

1. The Vice President of India is the second highest constitutional authority in the country. He acts as the ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He acts as the deputy to the President and assumes the duties of the President in the event of resignation, removal, death, impeachment and incapacity.

2. He is elected for five years. He can be re-elected umpteen times. 

3. He presides over Rajya Sabha’s sessions, protecting rights and privileges of members. He cannot act as the chairman while serving as acting President. In case of vacancy or inability of the President, he assumes the President’s duty until a new President is elected. He also serves as the chancellor of Punjab University, Delhi University and visitor of Makhanlal National University. He is also the President of the Indian Institute of Public Administration. In addition, he engages himself in addressing educational institutions, cultural programmes and visits foreign countries as the spokesperson of Government of India. 

Eligibility 

1. To become the Vice President of India, he must be a citizen of India. He must have completed 35 years of age. He must be qualified to be elected as the member of the Rajya Sabha. He must not hold any office of profit under the central, state or local government. However, a  Governor or a Minister in a central or state government can stand for the post of Vice President without resigning. Once he is elected and assumes the charge of Vice President, the previous post held by him is automatically vacated. 

Election process 

1.Vice President is elected by an electoral college consisting of elected and nominated members of both Houses of Parliament on the basis of proportional representation by a single transferable vote. Thus, members of state legislative assemblies do not participate in the election of Vice President as in the case of the election of the President of India. 

Removal process 

The Vice President can be removed by a resolution in the Rajya Sabha after giving him the advance notice of 14 days. Removal would be complete if the Rajya Sabha passes the resolution with an effective majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha. No specific ground has been mentioned in the constitution for the removal of the Vice President. Thus, there is no need to start impeachment proceedings based on the ground of proven misbehaviour or incapacity in the case of the President of India. An effective majority is the total strength of the House minus Vacancy. For example, if the effective strength of the Rajya Sabha on the date of the voting was 245 and there was a vacancy of ten members. The effective majority would be 245-10+1 = 118. Thus, if the resolution has the support of 118 members, it is deemed to be passed. The resolution must be agreed to by the Lok Sabha by simple majority. A simple majority means the majority of members present and voting. For example, if on the date of voting, 350 members were present in the Lok Sabha and if 50 members absented from voting and 151 members voted in favour of the resolution of removal and 149 members voted against the removal, the resolution would be deemed to have passed. So, the Vice President stands removed by the President of India.   

Comparison between the US and Indian Vice President

1. Vice President in India serves as the Deputy to the President and ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He acts  as the President in case of vacancy or incapacity until a new President is elected within six months.  He presides over the Rajya Sabha. He oversees its proceedings and decides on financial bills. He has no direct executive power unless acting as President. He is elected separately by an electoral college consisting of the members of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha for a period of five years which can be renewed. 

2. On the other hand, the US Vice President automatically assumes the presidency if the President dies, resigns or is removed. No new election is required. If he succeeds to the post of Presidentship for more than two years, he will have only one chance to get elected for another term of four years. However, if he succeeds to the post of Presidentship for less than two years, according to 22nd amendment, he is eligible for election to the Presidentship of the US for two terms of four years each, consecutive or non-consecutive.  He presides over the senate and votes only to break ties. He is often assigned specific executive tasks by the President. He is elected on a joint ticket with the President by the electoral college for four years which can be renewed again for four years. He must be a natural born US citizen, at least 35 years old and resident for fourteen years. He can be impeached by congress for high crimes and misdemeanors. He can submit a resignation letter to the President of the US. He represents the US at domestic and international events openly assigned by the President. 

Position of the Vice President in our constitution

1. The Vice President ensures constitutional stability. It ensures continuity and neutrality without undermining the Prime Minister’s authority. 

2. Without a Vice President, a presidential vacancy could create constitutional crises in a parliamentary system where the President’s role is integral to legislative and executive processes. Although he is not assigned executive power as in the case of the US Vice President, he still enjoys legislative powers and represents the Union Government in educational institutions, cultural fora and strengthening international relations.  

Conclusion

1. To sum up, the Vice President of India is not a superfluous post. He exerts legislative powers. In addition, he represents the country in the international fora. He ensures continuity in the administration and impartiality in the conduct of the Upper House. In several parliamentary forms of governments, there is no post of Vice President. The Indian Vice President is a unique feature of our Parliamentary Democracy.

Why did Mahatma Gandhi choose Jawaharlal Nehru as India's first Prime Minister of India ?

Why Mahatma Gandhi chose Jawaharlal Nehru as India's first Prime Minister.

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Written by Akhilesh Jha, IPS and Currently Director of International Police Academy,  Brussels, Belgium-- India  Affairs. 

( A) Introduction

The transition of power in 1947 was a watershed moment in Indian history. The choice of the first Prime Minister was not merely a political appointment but a strategic decision to ensure the stability and future trajectory of a newborn nation.  There  is a popular  perception  doing  rounds  that  Sardar  Patel  was  bypassed in spite of  12 out of 15 Provincial Congress Committees favoured Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel for the Congress Presidency in 1946—a position that effectively led to the Prime Ministership .But  this is  not true . Equating  Congress  Presidentship with  Prime Ministership was wrong  . Deliberate  villification  campaigns  are being  launched  to denigrate  Jawaharlal Nehru  . The  entire  hypothesis  is  built  upon  the book  written  by  J B Kriplani who  was  a staunch  opponent of  Jawaharlal Nehru. Moreover,  It is  pertinent  to  note that  neither  any contemporary  leader  nor any news paper voiced  dissent with regard to the appointment of Nehru as president of Congress or the prime ministership. Moreover,  had Sardar Patel been appointed as the President of Congress,  that Resolution was sure to fail the approval from the AICC where JawaharlalNehru had absolute majority.  .In 1951 , Kriplani formed  a new  Party called  Kishan  Mazdoor Praja Party by bifurcating from the Congress.  . In 1952 , he merged  his Party  with  Socialist  Party and  renamed  it Praja Socialist Party  . Mahatma Gandhi’s intervention in favour of Jawaharlal Nehru was rooted in several pragmatic and visionary factors.

1. Pan-Indian Mass Appeal and Secular Image

Nehru was established as an "All India Leader" with a mass appeal that transcended regional and religious boundaries. While Sardar Patel was a formidable organizer and fundraiser, his primary influence was often seen as concentrated among the farmers of the Bombay Presidency. In contrast, Nehru’s charisma drew crowds of hundreds of thousands from Peshawar to Dhaka.At a time when India was grappling with communal tensions, Nehru’s acceptance among Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and Christians made him the ideal candidate to lead a secular, pluralistic India. India needed  such  a mass leader who should  have  mass appeal  through out the length and breadth  of the  country  . India  was  in the  making  process. Foreign media  and  British  Leadership  were  skeptical about  the capacity  of  Indian  leaders  to keep  India  united.  Violent communist movements in Telangana,  ethnic turmoils in the North- Eastern  states ,  clamour  for  separate  Dravidistan and  tantrums  of  Sheikh  Abdullah  in Jammu and Kashmir further  necessitated  a leader  who  could  be acceptable  to  all  communities.  It  was  because  of  this  masterstroke  that  Congress  could  rule  this  country  for  the  next  55 years  , giving  the  nascent  democracy  a stability.  Congress  belied the doomsayers.  

2. Visionary and International Outlook

Gandhi recognized that the first Prime Minister would need to present India’s case on the global stage. Nehru’s deep understanding of international affairs, combined with his intellectual prowess as evidenced by his writings like The Discovery of India and Glimpses of World History, gave him a global stature that was unmatched by his contemporaries.  His command over English, Hindi, and Urdu allowed him to communicate effectively both with the international community and the Indian masses. 

3. Ideological Legacy and "Speaking Gandhi's Language"

Despite their differences in economic philosophies—Gandhi favoured village-centric economy while Nehru advocated for industrialization , albeit  heavy industries,  Gandhi famously stated that "Jawahar will speak my language" when he was gone. He believed that Nehru’s commitment to social justice, internationalism, and the removal of the zamindari system was essential for the modernization of India. Gandhi trusted that under Nehru's stewardship, the foundational values of the freedom struggle would remain secure. 

4. Age and Health Considerations  practically also played a significant role. In 1947, Nehru was 57 years old, representing the younger generation of the Congress leadership. Conversely, Sardar Patel was 14 years older and suffered from failing health, including multiple heart attacks.  Patel’s passing away in December 1950, just three years after independence, validated the concern that India needed a leader who could provide long-term stability during its formative years. 

5. Historical Precedence (The 1929 Lahore Session)

Nehru’s leadership credentials were solidified as early as the 1929 Lahore Session, where, under his presidency, the Congress first declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).  Since then, he had been the face of the Congress’s radical and progressive wing, making his elevation in 1946 a culmination of a trajectory that began nearly two decades earlier. 

Conclusion

Mahatma Gandhi’s preference for Jawaharlal Nehru was a decision based on the immediate needs of a diverse and newly independent nation. By choosing a leader with unparalleled mass appeal, an internationalist vision, and the physical vigour to lead for decades, Gandhi ensured that the "Idea of India" as a modern, secular, and democratic republic would have a strong foundation. While Patel remained the "Iron Man" who integrated the Princely states, Nehru became the architect of modern India, fulfilling the specific role Gandhi envisioned for him.

A critical analysis of the Budget 2026 - 27

A critical  analysis  of  the  Budget  2026 -- 27 

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Written by Akhilesh Jha, IPS, Gold Medallist and Currently honorary Director of International Police Academy, Brussels, Belgium 

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 Introduction 

The Union Budget 2026-27, presented by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman on February 1, 2026, focuses on infrastructure, manufacturing, and simplifying the tax regime. The Budget  is pegged  at ₹ 53.5 lakh crores. The  Budget  basically  stresses upon  continuity  , rather than  drastic  overhaul. 

Below are the key features and highlights:

1. Major Foreign Investment Reforms

A significant focus of this budget is  to attract global capital by modernizing foreign investment rules:

 ( a)  Portfolio Investment Scheme (PIS): Individual investment limits for Persons Resident Outside India (PROI) in listed Indian companies have been doubled from 5% to 10%.

 ( b) Aggregate Limits: The overall investment cap for these investors has been raised from 10% to 24%.

 ( c)  Regulatory Review: The government announced a comprehensive review of the Foreign Exchange Management (Non-Debt Instruments) Rules, 2019, to make them more "user-friendly" and aligned with modern economic priorities.. 

   The Government  relaxed  these  rules  for  Persons of Indian  Origin  ( PIO) because last year  in 2024 - 25 , about  $3.9 billion were  taken  away  from  FPI. Secondly,  about  eight  thousands  Indian  billionaires parked  their  money  into  tax havens like  Dubai or safe places like  in London  and Newyork..Secondly  , the capital  formation  rate  has  not  got push from  the  present  30% ( China  more  than  40%)

2. Infrastructure & Connectivity

The government continues its capex led  strategy to drive growth:

 (a)  Capital Expenditure: The capex target has been raised to ₹12.2 lakh crore for FY27, a 9% increase from the previous year.

 ( b)  Railways: The budget proposes seven new high-speed rail corridors to act as growth connectors between major cities.

 ( c)  City Economic Regions (CER): An allocation of ₹5,000 crore per city for cities with populations over 5 lakh (Tier-2 and Tier-3) to transform them into regional growth hubs. This has  been  necessitated  because  India  has  witnessed rapid  growth  in urbanization  .But  these  urban  centres  lack basic  amenities. The  budget  aims at  providing  basic  amenities  and  facilities  in these  centres. 

 ( c)  Infrastructure Risk Guarantee Fund: A new fund has been  created to offer partial credit guarantees to lenders, encouraging private sector participation in large projects.

3. Taxation & Ease of Living

 (a)  New Income Tax Act, 2025: A completely modernized tax code will come into effect from April 1, 2026, aimed at reducing litigation and simplifying compliance.

 ( b)  Remittance & Travel: Tax Collected at Source (TCS) on overseas tour packages and remittances for education/medical purposes has been slashed to 2% (down from 5% and 20% respectively) 

 ( c) Customs Duty Cuts  : Basic customs duty on 17 essential drugs (including cancer medicines) has been exempted.

   ( d)  Electronics: Duties on aircraft parts, microwave parts, and EV battery inputs have been reduced, making these items cheaper.

 (e)  Costlier Items: Luxury watches, imported alcohol, cigarettes and pan masala are set to become more expensive.

4. Manufacturing & Technology

  MSME Support: A ₹10,000 crore SME Growth Fund was introduced to help small businesses  to become future champions.

 Semiconductors & AI: Launch of ISM 2.0 to bolster the semiconductor ecosystem. The budget also introduced a tax holiday for data centres serving foreign customers until 2047.

 (a)  Orange Economy: Specific measures were announced to boost India’s creative industries (the orange economy ), including content creator labs in 15,000 schools.

5. Fiscal Indicators

 Fiscal Deficit: Targeted at 4.3% of GDP for FY27, down from 4.4% in the previous year.

 

( 6) Critical Analysis 

It is hoped that  the  Budget would  address the  high  tariffs imposed by the US and growing trade  deficits with  China which  reached to $116 billion. 

Secondly  , the  budget  aims to increase  private  sector  investment. This   would  offset  the  loss  incurred  on account  of persistent  outflow  of Foreign Portfolio Investment ( FPI) and  worrying  trend  among  the Indian  billionaires to park their  wealths in Dubai  , Singapore  or London.  

Thirdly  , the  focus  on MSME would  tackle  the  youth  unemployment which  has  increased  to 17% 

Fourthly  , critics  point out major  reduction in the  spending in critical  sectors  like Rural  development  , agriculture,  education,  health and  Jal Jeevan  Mission would  put  a break  upon the  growth  and  development  of  agricultural  sector and  rural  development 

Fifthly , MGNREGA  was  replaced  by G - RAM which promises 125 days of  work  in a year. The allocation would  need ₹2 lakh crores , far exceeding  ₹ 95000 provided  in the  Budget.  Moreover  , the provision  of  60:40 for the centre and  states  as the provision for  the new poverty  alleviation  programme would  further  complicate because  of the financial resource crunch  among  states.  

( 6) Critics  also  point  out  that  there  is need  to  increase  allocation  in defence  budget  looking  into  the  China - Pakistan  axis  . It must  be  noted  that  China  spends  $ 314 billion  against  India 's $84 billion  per annum.  

To conclude  , although  Share market  did not welcome  the budget  in a positive  way  because  of the increase in STT ( Securities Transaction Tax ) , the  Budget follows a  pattern of  stability  , investment and  credibility.

Why did Britishers leave India ?

Why did  Britishers  withdraw  from  India  ? 

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Introduction 

The national security adviser claimed other day that  India  got independence because of the role  of  Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and  INA. This is simplification of our freedom struggle that was  waged by lakhs of  freedom fighters  incessantly for 90 years.  Thousands of people got  killed  , butchered and  maimed by the British imperialists. A deeper  analysis  is warranted as to  why  Britishers  left India  ? 

The withdrawal of the British from India in 1947 was not an isolated event but the culmination of internal pressures, external geopolitical shifts, and the systematic erosion of the pillars of colonial governance. Following factors may be ascribed to  : -

I. The Surge of  Nationalism

The most potent internal factor was the rise of a structured and mass-based nationalist movement.

 * Awakening and Early Phase: Influenced by 19th-century social reformers like Raja Rammohan Ray, Swami Vivekananda, and Jyotiba Phule, a sense of "Rashtrabodh" (national consciousness) was ignited .The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 provided an all-India character to this sentiment .

 * The Gandhian Era: The transition from the "Protest, Prayer, and Petition" phase of the Moderates to the mass movements led by Mahatma Gandhi changed the nature of the struggle. Movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), Civil Disobedience (1930), and Quit India (1942) transformed nationalism into a household sentiment, making India ungovernable for the British .

 * Erosion of Colonial Authority: By the 1940s, the "Quit India" spirit had reached such depths that British officials found it nearly impossible to collect taxes or enforce law, as common citizens were now willing to face the utmost sacrifices for "Swaraj" .

II. The Crisis of Colonial Instruments

The British Raj rested on three pillars: the Civil Services, the Police, and the Army. By 1947, all three had weakened.

 * Indianization of Services: Post-1919, the bureaucracy saw a significant influx of Indians. By 1947, over half of the District Magistrates and SPs were Indians, whose loyalties were increasingly leaning toward the nationalist cause rather than the Crown.

 * The Military Blow: The trials of the Indian National Army (INA) officers at the Red Fort served as a catalyst, shifting the loyalty of the Indian soldiers within the British Indian Army . This culminated in the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946 in Bombay, involving 20,000 sailors  Once the British realized they could no longer rely on the Indian sword to maintain Indian subjection, their exit became inevitable.

III. Impact of World War second and Economic Exhaustion

World War II acted as a catalyst that bankrupt the British Empire both financially and militarily.

 * Economic Ruin: Although Britain emerged victorious, its economy was devastated. The loss of merchant shipping and the depletion of foreign assets made the maintenance of a distant colony like India an unbearable financial burden .

 * Shift in Global Power: The war ended the era of British naval supremacy, replaced by American air and atomic power. Britain’s focus shifted toward the economic reconstruction of Western Europe (Marshall Plan) rather than managing overseas territories .

IV. External Geopolitical Pressures

 * The Role of the USA: Under President Roosevelt, the US pushed for the principle of "Self-Determination" as outlined in the Atlantic Charter . The US also desired access to the vast Indian market, which was then restricted by British imperial preferences .

 * Change in British Leadership: The 1945 UK elections saw the defeat of the imperialist Winston Churchill and the rise of Clement Attlee’s Labour Party. Attlee's government prioritized domestic social welfare and decolonization over maintaining a crumbling empire .

V. The Strategic Nature of the Exit

The British exit was also marked by a strategic "Imperial Interest." The partition of India and the creation of Pakistan were partly intended to maintain a foothold in the region, ensuring Karachi's port facilities and a recruitment base for future interests in the Middle East .

Conclusion

The British did not leave India out of mere benevolence. It was a calculated retreat necessitated by the collapse of their administrative machinery, the rebellion within the armed forces, and a shattered post-war economy. The relentless pressure from the Indian masses, guided by stalwarts like Gandhi,Nehru,  Bose and Patel, ensured that the "Jewel in the Crown" became a liability that the British could no longer afford to hold .

Why Rajendra 1st Chola , not Chatrapati Shivaji, can be called the father of indian Navy ?

Was Chatrapati Shivaji was the father of the modern Navy in india ? 

                                                      The Great Chatrapati Shivaji 

Rajendra 1st Chola (1014 to 1044) was the great warrior . During his reign , the Chola power reached at its zenith.Military conquest reached to the eastern india in so far as his army crossed the Ganga river and defeated the Pala king, Mahipal. In addition to the military prowess, Rajendra Chola also established naval supremacy in the bay of Bengal and South East Asia . Both Pandyan and Chera navies were destroyed, therby establishing Chola supremacy in the eastern and western coast of india.. . During his reign , Bay of Bengal was converted into the Chola lake. Srilanka was subjugated and it remained under Chola rule for the next 50 years. Similarly, his naval expeditions reached to south east Asia . Shri Vijay kingdom and its Sailendra dynasty capitulated. Kadram (Keddah) also surrendered to him. Almost all south east Asian countries had come under his toes. Not only that , he established maritime trade relations with China . A Chola ambassador was stationed at Chinese Court. The strait of Malacca, the gateway to East Asia was completely under his control . To sum up , no indigenous power so much dominated the indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal as the mighty Cholas did in the mediaeval india. The Chola naval power was aggressive. Its main purpose was to establish extensive trade relations with south east Asian countries and China . 

                                               The great Rajendra 1st Chola 

On the other hand , the great Chatrapati Shivaji is said to be the father of modern Navy in india . However, Navy under Shivaji was defensive. He made Navy effective in guarding coastal regions.Navy was supported by various forts on the coastal regions. But his Navy was not strong enough to flush out western powers from deep sea . According to the historian, B K Apte , Navy under Shivaji was no match to the British Navy in the deep sea. It is worth noting that while Shivaji looted twice Surat, the Mughal depot, in 1664 and 1770 , he didn't dare to loot British factory located at Surat . Nor he ever tried to capture Goa , Daman and Diu from the Portuguese who had entrenched themselves since 1509 . Maratha Navy was adept in protecting the coastal regions because of their better knowledge of the coasts and creeks. But in the deep sea , Maratha Navy could not match European powers. During the Peshwa rule , no adequate attention was paid on the advancement of Maratha Navy. That's why, the British could be able to establish their rule over in the 18th century on account of their naval superiority. 

To sum up, While Navy under Rajendra Chola was assertive, conquering large tracts of land in South East Asia and fostering trade relations, Shivaji 's Navy was structured to protect the western coast of India  so that its territorial integrity could  be  safeguarded . Maratha Navy was basically defensive in nature. 

 

Non-alignment is the foundation of India’s foreign policy

 

What is non-alignment?

1. It means keeping away from two warring alliances after the end of the second world war. It should be noted that after the Second World War, the world was divided into two warring camps- the capitalist countries were led by the US and the communist countries were led by the Soviet Union. The US forged a NATO military alliance by bringing together countries of Western Europe against the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union on the other hand, made the Warsaw Pact with Eastern European Countries.  The two camps always sought to have military superiority over others. Thus ensued the cold war. This cold war continued till the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The newly independent countries decided to keep away from either of the military blocs to safeguard their hard earned political sovereignty. Thus non-alignment stood for keeping away from military entanglement of all types. It stood for refusal to allow military bases to any super-power on their territories. 

2. On the positive note, the non-alignment stands to protect the national interest of a country, to promote world peace. It is not a policy of sitting on the fence or indifferent to the burning issues of international politics. Rather it seeks active cooperation and mutual friendship between nations of both the blocs. 

3. After getting independence, India was the first country to pronounce non-alignment as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Thus, India decided not to join either of the bloc headed by the US or the Soviet Union. 

Special features of non-alignment

1. It stands  against status quo situations in international politics. 

2. It opposes colonialism, imperialism, racial discrimination, neo colonialism and apartheid. 

3. It stands against military alliances.

4. It rejects the concept of superiority of super powers 

5. It advocates sovereign equality of all states 

6. It encourages friendly relations among countries 

7. It advocates peaceful settlement of international disputes and rejects the use of force.

8. It favours complete destruction of nuclear weapons and pleaded for comprehensive disarmament. 

9. It supports all efforts to strengthen the United Nations

10. It stands for new international economic order bereft of injustice and imbalance in international relations

11. It stands for strategic autonomy for countries in their relation with other countries. 

12. Above all it stood for equality among countries and free decision making to subserve their national interests. 

The difference between non-alignment and neutrality 

1. While neutrality is a legal status of a country during war when a country does not take part in conflicts and abstains from supporting either side, non-alignment as a foreign policy approach is not legally bound to stay away from conflicts. A non-aligned country retains freedom to take position on issues based upon merit. Thus, Switzerland, Sweden, Austria are neutral states. A neutral state in no circumstances can participate in any armed conflict nor their territories can be used by belligerent powers. On the other hand, non-alignment is a broader concept. It can criticise or support super powers depending upon national interests. Thus, India criticised the combined attack of  Israel, Britain and France on Egypt in 1956 but did not call for the Soviet withdrawal from Hungary. Similarly, in 1979 India condemned the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. It also criticised the US attack on Vietnam and Iraq. Thus, non-aligned countries are free to take positions in international politics which may suit their national interests better. 

Why did India adopt non-alignment in its foreign policy after getting independence?

1. India wanted to have strategic autonomy in decision making so that its hard earned sovereignty could be preserved.

2. Because of the size, geo-political importance and contribution to civilisation, India could not be an appendage to either of the super powers. 

3. India wanted to have a positive role to play in international politics by reducing international tension, promoting peace and serving as a bridge between the two camps. 

4. India adopted a non-alignment policy so that its future role of an acknowledged great power was not compromised.

5. India could not join either of the power blocs because of the emotional and ideological reasons. It could not join western bloc because many of its member countries were ex-colonial powers and some of them still practiced racial discrimination. Moreover, India got freedom from British imperialism after the freedom struggle of more than 90 years.  On the other hand, it could not join the Soviet bloc because its ideology of communism was completely alien to Indian thinking and way of life. 

6. India wanted flexibility in its foreign policy. It did not want to be tied to the apron strings of another superpower. Thus, it wanted freedom in its foreign policy to decide every issue on its merit. 

7. The Indian economy was in shambles. The foreign domination for 200 years and the partition of India completely devastated its economy. India wanted speedy economic recovery. It needed foreign economic aid for its development. The non-alignment policy gave India an opportunity to get economic and technological aids from both the Soviet Union and the US. 

8. India stood for peaceful co-existence and toleration in international relations so that no third world war or any other war occurred in its vicinity. It wanted cordial relations with China. The policy of non-alignment suited to advance those above objectives.  

Critique of non-alignment policy 

1.   The non-alignment policy of India has been very much successful in preserving its strategic autonomy. India could protect its sovereignty and decision making power in a bipolar world. It adopted an independent foreign policy to suit its national interests. 

2. The non-alignment policy allowed India to receive economic aid and technical assistance from both the camps. Thus, while India received assistance for the Bhilai Steel Plant from the Soviet Union, it got economic as well as technical support from West Germany for the opening of Rourkela Steel Plant. Similarly, the US helped India in opening Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited at Bhopal. Britain helped India in founding Durgapur Steel Plant. In addition, the US helped India in machine making industries. By external support, India could make 73% of its industries on its own by 1980. This was a big achievement. 

3. The non-alignment policy elevated India’s international stature. It became the champion of the non-alignment movement.  The movement stood for peaceful co-existence,  disarmament and an equitable international order. Thus, NAM provided a platform for newly independent nations to assert their collective voice on a global forum. 

4. The non-alignment policy kept away India from any kind of entanglement in the military conflicts and proxy wars of the superpowers. Thus, it allowed India to focus on its internal challenges of nation building and poverty alleviation. 

5. However, the Sino-Indian War in 1962, Indo-Pakistan War in 1965, 1971 and 1999 exposed the limits of non-alignment policy. These wars demonstrated that the non-alignment policy did not guarantee the security of India. Secondly, critics also  argue that India’s non-alignment was often more of a rhetorical stance than a genuine non-alignment. For example, India opposes the UN forces led by the US crossing the 38th parallel and consistently pressed the ceasefire through the UN. When Britain and France joined Israel's attacks on Egypt during the Suez crisis, it was called a dastardly action. But when the Soviet Union intervened in Hungary, the Indian response was muted. India abstained from the UN resolution condemning Soviet actions. It opposed the Soviet intervention in principle and stopped short of calling for Soviet withdrawal from Eastern Europe. This position drew sharp criticism from Western Blocs. Similarly, the 1971 Indo-Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation signed during the Bangladesh liberation war was seen by many critics as a clear sign of tilt towards the Soviet Union. This event highlighted that when faced with a critical security threat, India prioritised its national interest over the strict principles of non-alignment. 

6. Despite its role as a leader of third world countries, the non-aligned movement was largely ineffective in preventing or resolving regional conflicts among its members. The Iran-Iraq war, Arab Israel war or India-Pakistan border disputes or Thailand-Kampuchia border disputes are examples where the non-alignment movement failed to play a decisive role.     

Relevance of non-alignment policy in the post-cold war situation

1. After the end of the cold war because of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a unipolar world order emerged. The United States remained the only super-power. However, the emerging China gave a challenge to the US so much so that it is now the second largest economy of the world with $19 trillion in nominal GDP while in terms of purchasing power parity, it surged ahead of the US. In addition, Japan, Germany and India have emerged economic giants. So the world has turned into a multi-polar world.  The question arises as to what is the relevance of India’s non-alignment policy in the multipolar world ? It should be noted that there were three objectives of non-alignment policy. They were strategic autonomy in foreign policy decision making, getting economic and technological aid from different developed countries for economic development and aimed at establishing international peace and peaceful settlement of disputes. Since all these three objectives still exist, the relevance of non-alignment remains undisturbed. It should be noted that although cold war and bipolarity has ceased to exist, the relevance of non-alignment is still intact because of the three above-mentioned objectives of India’s foreign policy. 

2. Shifting of non-alignment by multi-alignment as the foundation of India’s foreign policy -In the changed scenario of a multi-polar world. India has shifted to multi-alignment without compromising its policy of non-alignment of not joining any bloc. The multi-alignment stands for working with many blocs at the same time. Thus, India has built issue based partnerships without binding itself permanently with any bloc or any country. For example, India is a member of QUAD along with USA, Japan, Australia for Indo-Pacific security, technology and defence exercises. India has a defence pact with Russia whereby it gets S-400 missiles, submarines and energy security. It has further made aid agreements with the EU, free  trade agreements with Great Britain. It has an alignment with West Asian Countries like Israel, UAE and USA called I2U2 for energy and connectivity projects. On the other hand, India is a member of BRICS and SCO, where it gets financial cooperation. This multi-alignment keeps India’s strategic autonomy intact, helps balance against the China-Pakistan axis without being locked in one alliance, provides access to technology, markets, defence equipment and energy security from multiple partners. Thus, the multi-alignment enhances India’s role as a bridge between global north and global south. The following flowchart clearly elucidates the multi-alignment of India. 

Conclusion

The cold war and bipolarity ended. The Soviet Union was dissolved. India began to reorient its foreign policy towards the West. It sought closer cooperation with the US. It also scaled back its engagement with the non-alignment movement, which it had championed during the cold war. India went ahead with multi-alignment with different powerful countries at the same time to subserve its national interest but it did not abandon strategic autonomy which is the hallmark of non-alignment policy. For example, even in the face of the threat by the US on account of ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine. India continued to get concessional oils from Russia and after getting them refined, sold them in Europe, thereby fetching huge profit. Thus, the non-alignment policy of India outlived the cold war. It has been the policy of India to mediate between the conflicting positions of different countries by belonging to neither and this policy still continues in our foreign policy and so the policy of non-alignment still survives and evolved as multi-alignment. 

Is the Indian Economy a dead one ?

 Why is it in the news?

1. The US President, annoyed with the Indian Government, labelled both Indian and Russian economies as dead. The Government of India did not open the Indian farming sector and dairies for the US, fearing that the Indian farming community would not withstand the competition from the US agricultural goods and dairy products because 86% of Indian farmers are marginal farmers having less than two hectares of agricultural lands. The US farmers are holding huge chunks of land and getting huge subsidies from the US Government. 

Definition of a dead economy

1. An economy is said to be dead when there is no economic growth or when the economy of a country has started shrinking. For example, in 1995, the GDP of Japan at current prices was more than $5.5 trillion which came down to $4.187 trillion in 2025. So its economy slipped to fifth rank behind India. In contrast, in 1995 the GDP of India at current prices was $360 billion which rose to $4.187 trillion. Thus, India witnessed an increase of 11.6 times since 1995. If we compare other economies like China, Russia, the US, the UK, Germany, Argentina, Pakistan, we find that the growth rate of India since 1995 has been tremendous, only second to China. Again while in 1995, GDP of India was only 4.7% of the GDP of the US, it rose to 13.7% in 2025. The chart below suggests that the GDP growth of India, China and Russia witnessed a leap when compared with the GDP growth of the UK, Germany, and Japan. In 1995, the GDP of Japan was 72.6% of the GDP of the US which shrank to 13.7% of the US GDP in 2025.  On the other hand, the GDP of China was only 9.7% of the US GDP, rose to 63% of the US GDP in 2025. The chart below clearly suggests that the Indian Economy is increasing by leaps and bounds. It is estimated that by 2030, India would become the third largest economy of the world in nominal GDP terms, surpassing Germany. In absolute terms,according to the IMF,  Indian GDP would become $7 trillion in nominal terms and $22.2 trillion in PPP terms. 

	GDP current prices*		GDP in 2025 relative to GDP in 1995	GDP in 1995 as % of US GDP in 1995	GDP in 2025 as % of US GDP in 2025
	1995	2025
Argentina	288	684	2.4	3.8%	2.2%
China	738	19232	26.1	9.7%	63%
Germany	2595	4745	1.8	34%	15.6%
India	360	4187	11.6	4.7%	13.7%
Japan	5546	4186	0.8	72.6%	13.7%
Pakistan	99	373	3.8	1.3%	1.2%
Russian Federation	336	2076	6.2	4.4%	6.8%
UK	1345	3839	2.9	17.6%	12.6%
US	7640	30507	4	100%	100%
Pakistan data unavailable up to 2024. Source : IMF, The Indian Express Research * Billions of US dollars

2. India has become the fastest growing major economy of the world. Real GDP growth for the fiscal year 2024-25 stood at 6.5% and projections for 2025-26 from the IMF is 6.4%. This growth rate is significantly higher than that of the advanced economies and many of the emerging markets. In 2024-25, the growth rate of China was 5% and in 2025, the projected growth rate is 4%. Similarly, real growth rate of the US in 2024 was 2.8% and projected growth rate in 2025 is 1.7%, Russia 4.1% in 2024 and projected growth rate of 1.4% in 2025, the growth rate of UK was 1.2% and projected growth rate of 1% in 2025, in Canada the growth rate was 1.6% in 2024 and projected growth of around 1.8% of 2025. In Australia the growth rate was 1.75% in 2024 and projected growth rate 2.25% for 2025-26. The growth rate of Brazil was 3.4% in 2024 and the projected growth rate in 2025 as per the IMF estimates is 2%. 

Macro Economic Stability 

1. The fiscal deficit was brought down to 4.8% of GDP in 2024-25, which is to be reduced to 4.4% in 2025-26. Similarly, the retail inflation came down to 2.1%, the lowest since 2019. India’s exports have been increasing every year. It reached $850 billion in 2024-25. The foreign exchange reserves have reached around $700 billion, thereby providing a strong buffer against external shocks. Foreign direct investment inflows continue to be strong with cumulative inflows surpassing $ 1 trillion. 

2. One of the biggest achievements of the Indian economy is that in 1951, 70% people were below poverty line according to the estimates made by an economist Suresh Tendulkar. In 2022-23, only 5-6% people are now below poverty line. Instead of taking into calorie based matrices (2400 calories per day for rural and 2100 calories per day for urban), the Tendulkar committee took into account the monthly per capita consumption expenditure that includes food, education, health, clothing, electricity etc. The graph below would clearly elucidate the above point. 

 

Deep Concerns 

1. While India’s overall GDP has grown, its growth rate has lost momentum since 2011-12 and failed to replicate the spurt of fast growth at 8-9%. Since 2014 India’s growth rate has hovered around 6%. Thus we see that India has not achieved the pace of growth that China achieved from 1980 to 2010 at the average 10% growth rate. 

2. India’s share is just 1.8% of total global exports of merchandise goods and just 4.5% of total global exports of services. On the other hand, the share of Chinese exports of merchandise goods in world trade is around 14.6%. 

3. India’s farm economy is plagued with stress. 86 % of its farmers are practising subsistence agriculture and so they cannot compete with farmers of the US or developed countries who hold huge tracts of lands and get huge quantities of subsidies from their respective governments and that’s why the Indian Government wants to protect the farming and dairy sectors from the US and developed countries. 

4. It has been observed that since 2019-20 manufacturing sector has not registered a better growth rate as was expected. The CAGR was 4.04%, which was even lower than agriculture and allied activities at the CAGR of 4.72%. That’s why, the bulk of India’s population are still engaged in the rural and farming sectors because of the failure of manufacturing to absorb additional workforce employed in agricultural sectors. 

5. Despite the fast GDP growth in India, the growth has been skewed in favour of already developed states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This led to the regional disparities in India so much so that the average per capita income of Bihar is ten times less than that of Goa. On the eve of independence, the per capita income of Bihar was just half that of Bombay presidency which consisted of the present day Maharashtra and Gujarat. After the lapse of 78 years, this gap further widened so much that the average per capita of Bihar is 5 times lower than that of Maharashtra. 

6. There are still 22% of the people living below the poverty line according to a World Bank estimate. Inequality has further widened so much so that 1% people from the top own 22% of the national income and 40% of the national wealth. The 20% people from the below have no worth durable assets.  As regards human development, the condition of health and education for common people is still a matter of concern. 

7. Despite the impressive GDP growth the economy is not generating enough jobs to absorb the young population so much so that the youth unemployment is at 15%.  More than 80% of the workforce are employed in low productivity informal sectors. This jobless growth is a major threat to social and economic stability. 

8. Uneven economic recovery - The benefits of growth have not percolated to the grassroot level. While the urban consumption is increasing by leaps and bounds, the rural consumption is lagging, thereby creating widening rural-urban divide. 

9. India requires $1.5 trillion for the development of infrastructure in coming years, the mobilisation of huge long term capital remains a great challenge for India. 

10. The US tariff of 50% on Indian exports in 2025 threatens IT services, textiles and manufacturing exports. The slow global growth below 3% further reduces exports of India. 

11. The ongoing US-China rivalry, Russian- Ukraine war and instability in West Asia may further cause disruption in global supply chains leading to the risk of energy security of India. 

12. In addition, rising US interest rates can trigger portfolio outflows thereby putting pressure on the rupee and foreign reserves. 

Way Forward 

1. India can take the following measures to spur its growth momentum. These are : 

A) export diversification so that heavy reliance on the US and China can be minimised. 

B) More emphasis should be given on renewable sources of energy in order to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. 

C)MSMEs sectors should be further boosted so that more jobs are created. In addition, the manufacturing sector should get more priority and Make in India initiative and PLSI should get further filip so that India should produce more goods to be exported to the international market. Instead of depending upon domestic consumption, the export oriented growth would spur the manufacturing sector and its productivity.  

2. The recent declaration of reducing GST slabs at 5% and 18% would further lower prices of different commodities and these would spur consumer demand specially FMCG, durables and middle class consumption items. It would further ensure compliance and formalisation of the economy. A simplified tax regime will encourage domestic and foreign investment. 

Conclusion 

1. India is not a dead economy, instead it is the fastest moving economy in the world. In order to reap the maximum demographic dividend and to exploit the immense potential of the Indian economy, India must focus upon inclusive, employment intensive and sustainable growth. Instead of depending upon domestic consumption, India should strive for export oriented growth like China. This would further raise the production and productivity of the different sectors of the economy. However, the pertinent point is that the growth must percolate down to the grassroot levels.