What is Two Nations Theory?

Why is it in the news?

Pakistan Army Chief, General Asim Munir, has urged Pakistanis to pass down the ideology that led to the creation of the Islamic Republic. In a public speech, Munir doubled down on the differences between Hindus and Muslims. He invoked the two nations theory as the basis of Pakistan's creation and identity. He said, “Our forefathers believed that we were different from Hindus in every possible aspect of life. Our religion is different. Our customs are different. Our traditions are different. Our thoughts are different. Our ambitions are different. That was the foundation of the two nations theory. It was laid on the belief that we are two nations not one. Speaking to the gatherings, he said that you must tell this to your children so that they never forget the story of Pakistan. He said that our forefathers made immense sacrifices and we too, have sacrificed alot for the creation of this country.

What is the Two Nations Theory?

According to the two nations theory, Hindus and Muslims in British India constituted two distinct nations based on their religious, cultural and social differences. It was held that both Hindus and Muslims could not coexist harmoniously within a single nation state due to irreconcilable differences in their ways of life, values and aspirations. Thus, the theory of two nations became the ideological basis for the creation of Pakistan and the Partition of India in 1947.

Causes of the genesis of the Two Nations Theory

1. Religious differences - Both Hindus and Muslims followed distinct religious practices, different belief systems, social structures and personal laws. The religious revialist movement like Shuddhi Campaign launched by Arya Samaj further exacerbated the differences between the two communities. The Wahhabi movement further deepened the differences between them.

2. Cultural and social differences - Both Hindus and Muslims practiced different customs and traditions. Their social practices like marriage, divorce, adoption were quite different from each other. Moreover, Muslims associated Urdu as their linguistic identity while Hindi was linked to Hindus.

3. Political and economic marginalisation of Muslims - After the 1857 Revolt, the Britishers crushed Muslims more than Hindus. The British Government were of the view that the revolt was the handiwork of Muslim zamindars and Nawabs. That’s why, after the failure of the Revolt, their jagirs and lands were confiscated and distributed among peasants. They were denied Government jobs. They lacked education. They have fewer economic opportunities. Hindus dominated in trade and Government jobs. This is why, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan emphasised upon modern education.

4. The divide and rule policy of the British Government - Till 1890, the Britishers supported Hindus and crushed Muslims. But after 1890, the British Government changed its attitude when the Congress became vocal about various demands like Indianization of higher government jobs, remission in taxes, separation of judiciary from executive, high import duties on British goods and revival of indigenous handicrafts industries. The British Government helped in the establishment of Muslim league in 1906 to safeguard exclusively the Muslim interests, introduced separate electorates for Muslims in 1909 whereby the rising Indian nationalism was torn asunder.

5. Failure of Hindu Muslim unity efforts - Although Lucknow Pact was signed in 1916 between the Congress and the Muslim League whereby, Congress legitimised the separate electorates, the mistrust between two communities persisted on account of the rejection of Congress with regard to proportional representation to Muslims and failure of the Nehru report (1928) to accommodate Muslim concerns.

6. Reverses of Muslim league in 1937 provincial elections - The Muslim league secured only 109 out of 482 Muslim reserved seats across provinces. It secured less than 25% of the Muslim votes. In Muslim majority provinces of Punjab, the Unionist Party and in Bengal Krishak Praja Party came out as the largest political parties, relegating the Muslim League. On the other hand Congress got majorities in 7 out of 11 provinces and in other two provinces, it formed a government with the support of other parties.

Before 1937 elections, the Muslim league focused upon securing separate electorates for Muslims, more representation in legislatures and protection of Muslim culture within a federal India. But after reversals in the 1937 election, the Muslim league started articulating two nations theory, advocating that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations requiring separate political destinies. This culminated in the Lahore resolution of 1940 which demanded independent states in Muslim majority regions of North West India and Eastern India. In the 1945-46 election, the Muslim League strengthened its position by securing 425 seats out of 482 reserved Muslims seats in provincial elections. This landslide victory of Muslim league hardened its demand for a separate homeland for Muslims.

Consequences of the Two Nations Theory

1. Partition of India between India and Pakistan.

2. Mass migration leading to the deaths of more than 10 lakhs people and exodus of 150 lakh people crossing borders. While the majority of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India, Muslims from India left for Pakistan. There was widespread atrocities on women of both communities.

3. Continued India Pakistan rivalry. Even after the creation of Pakistan, it did not resolve Kashmir and minority issues. India and Pakistan fought four wars. There is still continued tension between the two countries. Pakistan has been exporting terrorists into Kashmir and trying to liberate J&K from India. The terrorist activities are still going on within J&K at the behest of Pakistan. Thousands of people, terrorists and security forces have lost their lives in the last 40 years. The terrorist attack on 22nd April 2025 and killing of 26 tourists further exacerbated tension between two countries so much so that India suspended Indus water treaty for indefinite period, shut down imports and banned Indian Air Space for Pakistani airlines. India also cancelled all visas of Pakistani Nationals and directed them to vacate India. Similarly, Pakistan suspended the Simla Agreement. It banned its Air Space for Indian Airlines.

4. The two nations theory and the consequent partition of India further left permanent scars on the Hindu-Muslim unity in India. There have been hundreds of communal riots within India after independence.

5. Emergence of Bangladesh - The two nations theory failed to account for ethnic and linguistic diversity within Pakistan. Being aggrieved of marginalisation by Western Pakistan, the Bangla speaking Muslims of East Pakistan sought after independence in 1972.

Limitations of the Two Nations Theory

1. Oversimplification of religious identity - The theory based religion as the separate identity between Hindus and Muslims, thereby, ignoring linguistic, ethnic and regional diversity. It overlooked the fact that Punjabi Muslims shared more cultural traits with Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs than the Bengali Muslims. Similarly, Bengali Muslims of East Bengal had identical cultural traits with Bengali Hindus than Muslims of Western Pakistan. This led to the creation of Bangladesh in 1972.

2. The theory failed to address the Muslim minority issues in India and Hindu minority issues in Pakistan. The theory divided Muslim population into three countries of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, thereby weakening their political stature within India. This gave rise to the Hindu Nationalists in India. Moreover, while the population of Hindus got reduced from 21% to 3%, in Bangladesh, the Hindu population dwindled from 31% to 8-9%. On the other hand, the Muslim population within India rose from 35 million to 180 million. Thus, the theory did not take into account the plight of the 1/3rd of Muslims who remained within India.

3. The theory disrupted the economy of India so much so that most of the food producing areas went to western Pakistan. It created a food shortage in India. While maximum jute producing areas remained in eastern Pakistan, the maximum jute factories were located around Kolkata. The social fabric of Punjab and Bengal was completely torn.

4. Two nations theory further destroyed the composite culture and Hindu Muslim coexistence developed through centuries by the efforts of saints of Bhakti and Sufi movements. It created a permanent chasm between two communities within India and Pakistan. It struck at the root of shared cultural practices in the field of architecture, sculpture, paintings, literature, music , dance, drama and cinema.

5.But in spite of the enunciation of two nations theory, India could not have been partitioned. If the Britishers would have been neutral. According to he noted scholar, Istiyak Ahmad, the partition was effected by the Britishers to subserve its imperialist interests in the Middle East and to get concession from Pakistan with regard to its air base and recruitments of Muslim Soldiers to serve the British Empire. According to him, a united India could not be a pliable tool of the British imperialists.

Conclusion

The two nations theory caused immense suffering among the people of the Indian subcontinent. It was an artificial theory to give ideological support to Ashrafia (Upper class)Muslims to get a separate homeland. Its emphasis solely upon religious identity, ignoring linguistic, ethnic and cultural cohesiveness was erroneous. Because of this theory, both Pakistan and India have been suffering. Lakhs of people on either side have been killed since partition. Pseudo war is still going on between both countries.