Non-alignment is the foundation of India’s foreign policy

 

What is non-alignment?

1. It means keeping away from two warring alliances after the end of the second world war. It should be noted that after the Second World War, the world was divided into two warring camps- the capitalist countries were led by the US and the communist countries were led by the Soviet Union. The US forged a NATO military alliance by bringing together countries of Western Europe against the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union on the other hand, made the Warsaw Pact with Eastern European Countries.  The two camps always sought to have military superiority over others. Thus ensued the cold war. This cold war continued till the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The newly independent countries decided to keep away from either of the military blocs to safeguard their hard earned political sovereignty. Thus non-alignment stood for keeping away from military entanglement of all types. It stood for refusal to allow military bases to any super-power on their territories. 

2. On the positive note, the non-alignment stands to protect the national interest of a country, to promote world peace. It is not a policy of sitting on the fence or indifferent to the burning issues of international politics. Rather it seeks active cooperation and mutual friendship between nations of both the blocs. 

3. After getting independence, India was the first country to pronounce non-alignment as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Thus, India decided not to join either of the bloc headed by the US or the Soviet Union. 

Special features of non-alignment

1. It stands  against status quo situations in international politics. 

2. It opposes colonialism, imperialism, racial discrimination, neo colonialism and apartheid. 

3. It stands against military alliances.

4. It rejects the concept of superiority of super powers 

5. It advocates sovereign equality of all states 

6. It encourages friendly relations among countries 

7. It advocates peaceful settlement of international disputes and rejects the use of force.

8. It favours complete destruction of nuclear weapons and pleaded for comprehensive disarmament. 

9. It supports all efforts to strengthen the United Nations

10. It stands for new international economic order bereft of injustice and imbalance in international relations

11. It stands for strategic autonomy for countries in their relation with other countries. 

12. Above all it stood for equality among countries and free decision making to subserve their national interests. 

The difference between non-alignment and neutrality 

1. While neutrality is a legal status of a country during war when a country does not take part in conflicts and abstains from supporting either side, non-alignment as a foreign policy approach is not legally bound to stay away from conflicts. A non-aligned country retains freedom to take position on issues based upon merit. Thus, Switzerland, Sweden, Austria are neutral states. A neutral state in no circumstances can participate in any armed conflict nor their territories can be used by belligerent powers. On the other hand, non-alignment is a broader concept. It can criticise or support super powers depending upon national interests. Thus, India criticised the combined attack of  Israel, Britain and France on Egypt in 1956 but did not call for the Soviet withdrawal from Hungary. Similarly, in 1979 India condemned the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. It also criticised the US attack on Vietnam and Iraq. Thus, non-aligned countries are free to take positions in international politics which may suit their national interests better. 

Why did India adopt non-alignment in its foreign policy after getting independence?

1. India wanted to have strategic autonomy in decision making so that its hard earned sovereignty could be preserved.

2. Because of the size, geo-political importance and contribution to civilisation, India could not be an appendage to either of the super powers. 

3. India wanted to have a positive role to play in international politics by reducing international tension, promoting peace and serving as a bridge between the two camps. 

4. India adopted a non-alignment policy so that its future role of an acknowledged great power was not compromised.

5. India could not join either of the power blocs because of the emotional and ideological reasons. It could not join western bloc because many of its member countries were ex-colonial powers and some of them still practiced racial discrimination. Moreover, India got freedom from British imperialism after the freedom struggle of more than 90 years.  On the other hand, it could not join the Soviet bloc because its ideology of communism was completely alien to Indian thinking and way of life. 

6. India wanted flexibility in its foreign policy. It did not want to be tied to the apron strings of another superpower. Thus, it wanted freedom in its foreign policy to decide every issue on its merit. 

7. The Indian economy was in shambles. The foreign domination for 200 years and the partition of India completely devastated its economy. India wanted speedy economic recovery. It needed foreign economic aid for its development. The non-alignment policy gave India an opportunity to get economic and technological aids from both the Soviet Union and the US. 

8. India stood for peaceful co-existence and toleration in international relations so that no third world war or any other war occurred in its vicinity. It wanted cordial relations with China. The policy of non-alignment suited to advance those above objectives.  

Critique of non-alignment policy 

1.   The non-alignment policy of India has been very much successful in preserving its strategic autonomy. India could protect its sovereignty and decision making power in a bipolar world. It adopted an independent foreign policy to suit its national interests. 

2. The non-alignment policy allowed India to receive economic aid and technical assistance from both the camps. Thus, while India received assistance for the Bhilai Steel Plant from the Soviet Union, it got economic as well as technical support from West Germany for the opening of Rourkela Steel Plant. Similarly, the US helped India in opening Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited at Bhopal. Britain helped India in founding Durgapur Steel Plant. In addition, the US helped India in machine making industries. By external support, India could make 73% of its industries on its own by 1980. This was a big achievement. 

3. The non-alignment policy elevated India’s international stature. It became the champion of the non-alignment movement.  The movement stood for peaceful co-existence,  disarmament and an equitable international order. Thus, NAM provided a platform for newly independent nations to assert their collective voice on a global forum. 

4. The non-alignment policy kept away India from any kind of entanglement in the military conflicts and proxy wars of the superpowers. Thus, it allowed India to focus on its internal challenges of nation building and poverty alleviation. 

5. However, the Sino-Indian War in 1962, Indo-Pakistan War in 1965, 1971 and 1999 exposed the limits of non-alignment policy. These wars demonstrated that the non-alignment policy did not guarantee the security of India. Secondly, critics also  argue that India’s non-alignment was often more of a rhetorical stance than a genuine non-alignment. For example, India opposes the UN forces led by the US crossing the 38th parallel and consistently pressed the ceasefire through the UN. When Britain and France joined Israel's attacks on Egypt during the Suez crisis, it was called a dastardly action. But when the Soviet Union intervened in Hungary, the Indian response was muted. India abstained from the UN resolution condemning Soviet actions. It opposed the Soviet intervention in principle and stopped short of calling for Soviet withdrawal from Eastern Europe. This position drew sharp criticism from Western Blocs. Similarly, the 1971 Indo-Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation signed during the Bangladesh liberation war was seen by many critics as a clear sign of tilt towards the Soviet Union. This event highlighted that when faced with a critical security threat, India prioritised its national interest over the strict principles of non-alignment. 

6. Despite its role as a leader of third world countries, the non-aligned movement was largely ineffective in preventing or resolving regional conflicts among its members. The Iran-Iraq war, Arab Israel war or India-Pakistan border disputes or Thailand-Kampuchia border disputes are examples where the non-alignment movement failed to play a decisive role.     

Relevance of non-alignment policy in the post-cold war situation

1. After the end of the cold war because of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a unipolar world order emerged. The United States remained the only super-power. However, the emerging China gave a challenge to the US so much so that it is now the second largest economy of the world with $19 trillion in nominal GDP while in terms of purchasing power parity, it surged ahead of the US. In addition, Japan, Germany and India have emerged economic giants. So the world has turned into a multi-polar world.  The question arises as to what is the relevance of India’s non-alignment policy in the multipolar world ? It should be noted that there were three objectives of non-alignment policy. They were strategic autonomy in foreign policy decision making, getting economic and technological aid from different developed countries for economic development and aimed at establishing international peace and peaceful settlement of disputes. Since all these three objectives still exist, the relevance of non-alignment remains undisturbed. It should be noted that although cold war and bipolarity has ceased to exist, the relevance of non-alignment is still intact because of the three above-mentioned objectives of India’s foreign policy. 

2. Shifting of non-alignment by multi-alignment as the foundation of India’s foreign policy -In the changed scenario of a multi-polar world. India has shifted to multi-alignment without compromising its policy of non-alignment of not joining any bloc. The multi-alignment stands for working with many blocs at the same time. Thus, India has built issue based partnerships without binding itself permanently with any bloc or any country. For example, India is a member of QUAD along with USA, Japan, Australia for Indo-Pacific security, technology and defence exercises. India has a defence pact with Russia whereby it gets S-400 missiles, submarines and energy security. It has further made aid agreements with the EU, free  trade agreements with Great Britain. It has an alignment with West Asian Countries like Israel, UAE and USA called I2U2 for energy and connectivity projects. On the other hand, India is a member of BRICS and SCO, where it gets financial cooperation. This multi-alignment keeps India’s strategic autonomy intact, helps balance against the China-Pakistan axis without being locked in one alliance, provides access to technology, markets, defence equipment and energy security from multiple partners. Thus, the multi-alignment enhances India’s role as a bridge between global north and global south. The following flowchart clearly elucidates the multi-alignment of India. 

Conclusion

The cold war and bipolarity ended. The Soviet Union was dissolved. India began to reorient its foreign policy towards the West. It sought closer cooperation with the US. It also scaled back its engagement with the non-alignment movement, which it had championed during the cold war. India went ahead with multi-alignment with different powerful countries at the same time to subserve its national interest but it did not abandon strategic autonomy which is the hallmark of non-alignment policy. For example, even in the face of the threat by the US on account of ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine. India continued to get concessional oils from Russia and after getting them refined, sold them in Europe, thereby fetching huge profit. Thus, the non-alignment policy of India outlived the cold war. It has been the policy of India to mediate between the conflicting positions of different countries by belonging to neither and this policy still continues in our foreign policy and so the policy of non-alignment still survives and evolved as multi-alignment. 

Is the Indian Economy a dead one ?

 Why is it in the news?

1. The US President, annoyed with the Indian Government, labelled both Indian and Russian economies as dead. The Government of India did not open the Indian farming sector and dairies for the US, fearing that the Indian farming community would not withstand the competition from the US agricultural goods and dairy products because 86% of Indian farmers are marginal farmers having less than two hectares of agricultural lands. The US farmers are holding huge chunks of land and getting huge subsidies from the US Government. 

Definition of a dead economy

1. An economy is said to be dead when there is no economic growth or when the economy of a country has started shrinking. For example, in 1995, the GDP of Japan at current prices was more than $5.5 trillion which came down to $4.187 trillion in 2025. So its economy slipped to fifth rank behind India. In contrast, in 1995 the GDP of India at current prices was $360 billion which rose to $4.187 trillion. Thus, India witnessed an increase of 11.6 times since 1995. If we compare other economies like China, Russia, the US, the UK, Germany, Argentina, Pakistan, we find that the growth rate of India since 1995 has been tremendous, only second to China. Again while in 1995, GDP of India was only 4.7% of the GDP of the US, it rose to 13.7% in 2025. The chart below suggests that the GDP growth of India, China and Russia witnessed a leap when compared with the GDP growth of the UK, Germany, and Japan. In 1995, the GDP of Japan was 72.6% of the GDP of the US which shrank to 13.7% of the US GDP in 2025.  On the other hand, the GDP of China was only 9.7% of the US GDP, rose to 63% of the US GDP in 2025. The chart below clearly suggests that the Indian Economy is increasing by leaps and bounds. It is estimated that by 2030, India would become the third largest economy of the world in nominal GDP terms, surpassing Germany. In absolute terms,according to the IMF,  Indian GDP would become $7 trillion in nominal terms and $22.2 trillion in PPP terms. 

	GDP current prices*		GDP in 2025 relative to GDP in 1995	GDP in 1995 as % of US GDP in 1995	GDP in 2025 as % of US GDP in 2025
	1995	2025
Argentina	288	684	2.4	3.8%	2.2%
China	738	19232	26.1	9.7%	63%
Germany	2595	4745	1.8	34%	15.6%
India	360	4187	11.6	4.7%	13.7%
Japan	5546	4186	0.8	72.6%	13.7%
Pakistan	99	373	3.8	1.3%	1.2%
Russian Federation	336	2076	6.2	4.4%	6.8%
UK	1345	3839	2.9	17.6%	12.6%
US	7640	30507	4	100%	100%
Pakistan data unavailable up to 2024. Source : IMF, The Indian Express Research * Billions of US dollars

2. India has become the fastest growing major economy of the world. Real GDP growth for the fiscal year 2024-25 stood at 6.5% and projections for 2025-26 from the IMF is 6.4%. This growth rate is significantly higher than that of the advanced economies and many of the emerging markets. In 2024-25, the growth rate of China was 5% and in 2025, the projected growth rate is 4%. Similarly, real growth rate of the US in 2024 was 2.8% and projected growth rate in 2025 is 1.7%, Russia 4.1% in 2024 and projected growth rate of 1.4% in 2025, the growth rate of UK was 1.2% and projected growth rate of 1% in 2025, in Canada the growth rate was 1.6% in 2024 and projected growth of around 1.8% of 2025. In Australia the growth rate was 1.75% in 2024 and projected growth rate 2.25% for 2025-26. The growth rate of Brazil was 3.4% in 2024 and the projected growth rate in 2025 as per the IMF estimates is 2%. 

Macro Economic Stability 

1. The fiscal deficit was brought down to 4.8% of GDP in 2024-25, which is to be reduced to 4.4% in 2025-26. Similarly, the retail inflation came down to 2.1%, the lowest since 2019. India’s exports have been increasing every year. It reached $850 billion in 2024-25. The foreign exchange reserves have reached around $700 billion, thereby providing a strong buffer against external shocks. Foreign direct investment inflows continue to be strong with cumulative inflows surpassing $ 1 trillion. 

2. One of the biggest achievements of the Indian economy is that in 1951, 70% people were below poverty line according to the estimates made by an economist Suresh Tendulkar. In 2022-23, only 5-6% people are now below poverty line. Instead of taking into calorie based matrices (2400 calories per day for rural and 2100 calories per day for urban), the Tendulkar committee took into account the monthly per capita consumption expenditure that includes food, education, health, clothing, electricity etc. The graph below would clearly elucidate the above point. 

 

Deep Concerns 

1. While India’s overall GDP has grown, its growth rate has lost momentum since 2011-12 and failed to replicate the spurt of fast growth at 8-9%. Since 2014 India’s growth rate has hovered around 6%. Thus we see that India has not achieved the pace of growth that China achieved from 1980 to 2010 at the average 10% growth rate. 

2. India’s share is just 1.8% of total global exports of merchandise goods and just 4.5% of total global exports of services. On the other hand, the share of Chinese exports of merchandise goods in world trade is around 14.6%. 

3. India’s farm economy is plagued with stress. 86 % of its farmers are practising subsistence agriculture and so they cannot compete with farmers of the US or developed countries who hold huge tracts of lands and get huge quantities of subsidies from their respective governments and that’s why the Indian Government wants to protect the farming and dairy sectors from the US and developed countries. 

4. It has been observed that since 2019-20 manufacturing sector has not registered a better growth rate as was expected. The CAGR was 4.04%, which was even lower than agriculture and allied activities at the CAGR of 4.72%. That’s why, the bulk of India’s population are still engaged in the rural and farming sectors because of the failure of manufacturing to absorb additional workforce employed in agricultural sectors. 

5. Despite the fast GDP growth in India, the growth has been skewed in favour of already developed states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This led to the regional disparities in India so much so that the average per capita income of Bihar is ten times less than that of Goa. On the eve of independence, the per capita income of Bihar was just half that of Bombay presidency which consisted of the present day Maharashtra and Gujarat. After the lapse of 78 years, this gap further widened so much that the average per capita of Bihar is 5 times lower than that of Maharashtra. 

6. There are still 22% of the people living below the poverty line according to a World Bank estimate. Inequality has further widened so much so that 1% people from the top own 22% of the national income and 40% of the national wealth. The 20% people from the below have no worth durable assets.  As regards human development, the condition of health and education for common people is still a matter of concern. 

7. Despite the impressive GDP growth the economy is not generating enough jobs to absorb the young population so much so that the youth unemployment is at 15%.  More than 80% of the workforce are employed in low productivity informal sectors. This jobless growth is a major threat to social and economic stability. 

8. Uneven economic recovery - The benefits of growth have not percolated to the grassroot level. While the urban consumption is increasing by leaps and bounds, the rural consumption is lagging, thereby creating widening rural-urban divide. 

9. India requires $1.5 trillion for the development of infrastructure in coming years, the mobilisation of huge long term capital remains a great challenge for India. 

10. The US tariff of 50% on Indian exports in 2025 threatens IT services, textiles and manufacturing exports. The slow global growth below 3% further reduces exports of India. 

11. The ongoing US-China rivalry, Russian- Ukraine war and instability in West Asia may further cause disruption in global supply chains leading to the risk of energy security of India. 

12. In addition, rising US interest rates can trigger portfolio outflows thereby putting pressure on the rupee and foreign reserves. 

Way Forward 

1. India can take the following measures to spur its growth momentum. These are : 

A) export diversification so that heavy reliance on the US and China can be minimised. 

B) More emphasis should be given on renewable sources of energy in order to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. 

C)MSMEs sectors should be further boosted so that more jobs are created. In addition, the manufacturing sector should get more priority and Make in India initiative and PLSI should get further filip so that India should produce more goods to be exported to the international market. Instead of depending upon domestic consumption, the export oriented growth would spur the manufacturing sector and its productivity.  

2. The recent declaration of reducing GST slabs at 5% and 18% would further lower prices of different commodities and these would spur consumer demand specially FMCG, durables and middle class consumption items. It would further ensure compliance and formalisation of the economy. A simplified tax regime will encourage domestic and foreign investment. 

Conclusion 

1. India is not a dead economy, instead it is the fastest moving economy in the world. In order to reap the maximum demographic dividend and to exploit the immense potential of the Indian economy, India must focus upon inclusive, employment intensive and sustainable growth. Instead of depending upon domestic consumption, India should strive for export oriented growth like China. This would further raise the production and productivity of the different sectors of the economy. However, the pertinent point is that the growth must percolate down to the grassroot levels.

The Chola Empire - The Great Naval Power in Medieval India

 

Why is it in the news?

1. Paying glowing tributes to the military might and administrative acumen of Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola I, the Prime Minister said that the heights reached by the emperors were the source of inspiration, providing an ancient road map for India to become a developed nation.

2. To become a developed nation we must prioritise unity, strengthen our navy and defence forces and look for new opportunities while safeguarding our core values.  

3. The Prime Minister also released  a commemorative coin in the  honour of Rajendra Chola I. The king has built Gangaiconda Cholapuram and Cholagangam, a massive lake, after his victorious expedition to the Gangetic plains about a 1000 years ago. 

4. The Prime Minister said that the legacy of Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola is synonymous with India’s identity and pride. The history and heritage of the Chola empire proclaimed the true potential of India. Rajaraja Chola built a powerful Navy. His son Rajendra Chola I strengthened it. The Cholas strengthened local administration and established extensive trade and cultural links. The Chola rulers extended their diplomatic and trade relations to Sri Lanka, the Maldives and South East Asia. 

5. The Prime Minister said that India too accorded the highest priority to national security. The world witnessed the firm and decisive response of the country during operation Sindoor to safeguard its sovereignty. 

Who were Cholas?

1. The Chola Kingdom was situated to the North East of the territory of the Pandays between the Pennar and Vellar rivers. The kingdom sprang up around the third century BC and continued till the second century AD. The chief centre of political power lay at Uraiyur and Puhar. 

2.Elara, a Chola king is set to have conquered Sri Lanka in the second century BC. The most famous Chola kings were Karikal. He built a 160 km long embankment along the Kavery river. However, around the 3rd century AD, the power of Cholas declined.  The Cheras and the Pandyas expanded at the cost of Cholas. The Pallavas rose in Kanchipuram and they wiped out Chola power and so from fourth to ninth century, the Cholas remained feudatory of Pallavas.

3. The founder of the imperial Chola was Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore in 850 AD and by the end of 9th Century the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas and Pandyas. Although the Rashkuta king Krishna III defeated the Chola king Parantak I, Cholas recovered rapidly. 

Cholas became the great Naval power 

1. The Cholas built one of the most formidable navies in Indian history. Their ships were designed for both warfare and trade. They were equipped to navigate the open seas and engaged in battles. The Cholas constructed large vessels capable of carrying troops, supplies and trade goods across long distances. Ports like Nagapattinam and Kaveripattinam were hubs for ship building and naval operations. The Cholas established key naval bases around the Coromandel coasts, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Sri Vijaya Empire. 

2. During the rule of Rajaraja (985 - 1014) and Rajendra I (1014-1044). The Cholas built an empire by strengthening its Navy. During their rule, the Bay of Bengal was virtually converted into a Chola lake. Rajaraja Chola conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka. He destroyed the Chera navy at Trivendrum and attacked Quilon. Madurai was captured from Pandyas. Similarly, Maldives was also conquered. During the rule of Rajendra I, the entire Sri Lanka was annexed. Moreover, the Chola army crossed the river Ganga and defeated Pala king.

3. During the period of Rajendra I, Naval expeditions were carried out against the Shri Vijaya kingdom (Malaysia and Indonesia). He established trade with China and the Middle East. They exported spices, textiles and gems, thereby fostering economic prosperity. 

4. Their naval power secured maritime trade routes in the Indian Ocean enhancing their economic dominance. They have effective control over the strait of Malacca and the strait of Harmouz, the two choke points in the Indian Ocean. 

5. Thus, the Chola rose to power through the combination of military conquests, naval dominance, economic prosperity and administrative efficiency. 

6. By the end of the 13th century, the Chola power declined. The resurgence of Pandayas led to the defeat of the Cholas in the battle of Thondi in 1251. As the central authority weakened, the local chieftains and feudatories switched their loyalties to Pandyas. In 1279, the Pandayas captured their capital, Tanjore. Thus, the Chola dynasty was wiped out on account of weak leadership, internal rebellions, military over extension and resurgence of rival powers like Pandays and Hoysalas.  

How can the legacy of Chola Dynasty and its naval supremacy be implemented by the Present Indian Government? 

1. The legacy of the Naval supremacy of Cholas can be emulated and implemented by strengthening the Indian Naval bases in the Indian Ocean. It offers a blueprint for the Indian Government to enhance its maritime strategy, economic growth, cultural diplomacy and governance. By modernising the navy, developing ports, promoting cultural heritage and adopting decentralised governance, India can dominate the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. It is therefore incumbent that there must be an increase in defence budget for the upgradation of naval bases in order to neutralise the dominance of China in the Indian Ocean. Accelerating the Sagarmala project to modernise ports and coastal shippings is essential to further boost our trade efficiency. Since, the Indian Ocean is the life line for the Indian Economy and a guarantee for the security of our country. India must align with countries of the Indian Ocean region. 

Conclusion 

A Chola model of Naval superiority and administrative decentralisation provide a historical foundation for India to assert itself as a leading maritime and cultural power in the Indian Ocean region. By strengthening the Chola model of decentralisation of power at the grassroot level, India can strengthen its democratic set up further. By focusing upon naval superiority in the Indian Ocean, India can challenge the dominance of China in the Indo-Pacific Region.