What is delimitation? How can the danger of delimitation be averted ?

Why is it in the news?

1. The Chief Minister along with most of the political parties of Tamil Nadu opposed the delimitation of parliamentary constituencies. 

2. Different parties asked the centre to extend the 1971 census based delimitation for another 30 years beyond 2026 to ensure fair representation of states that have effectively controlled their population. 

3. A joint action committee was formed consisting of MPs of TamilNadu and other southern states. The Chief Minister of TamilNadu said that his Government would take all measures to prevent the implementation of delimitation. Resolution echoed that delimitation would weaken TamilNadu and would be a threat to the federal structure. He also contended that if parliamentary, legislative and Rajya Sabha seats are reduced based on population, it would amount to penalising the southern states which successfully implemented socio-economic welfare of the people and controlled the population.

4. The resolution demanded that if the total number of Lok Sabha is increased, TamilNadu must receive a proportionate increase in constituencies based on the 1971 census. While stating that TamilNadu is not against delimitation, it demanded a clear constitutional amendment ensuring that southern states are not unfairly penalised in seat redistribution. 

What is delimitation?  

1. It aims to ensure fair representation in Parliament and state legislature by adjusting constituency boundaries in accordance with population changes. 

2. It stands for one person, one vote and one value. Our constitution mandates that every MP of Lok Sabha and every MLA of state assembly should represent roughly the same number of voters. Article 82 mandates that after every census an independent delimitation commission would be constituted for the purpose of delimitation of constituencies; that's why, delimitation was conducted in 1952, 1962 and 1972 after the census. However, by the 42nd amendment in 1976, the delimitation was frozen and was extended to 2001. By the 84th amendment the freeze on delimitation was extended up to 2026. Article 82 was amended in 2002 which provides for fresh distribution based on the population data from the 1st census after 2026. 

3. The freezing of delimitation resulted in under-representation of UP, Bihar and other northern states while southern states having lower population have higher representation. For example, an MP is elected from a constituency in UP with an average voters of 30 lakhs. On the other hand, an MP is elected from a constituency in Kerala with an average voters of 18 lakhs. Southern states fear that if the delimitation is pursued on the basis of population, the southern states would have lesser representation. 

4. Moreover,  the southern states contend that they are more advanced in terms of per capita income, contribution to central exchequer, infrastructure, education, healthcare, urbanisation, lower total fertility rate, longer life expectancy. They contend that without addressing these inequalities, delimitation could create distorted forms of inter-state inequalities in India.  

5. Supporters of delimitation argue that without delimitation exercise, 1/3rd representation to women in Lok Sabha and State assemblies after 2029 cannot be allotted. Secondly, the population of SC/ST have increased and so the reserve seats for them are also to be increased to give representation to them in proportion to their population. Thirdly, because of the rising tempo of urbanisation, the population has shifted from rural to urban areas. These areas are also to be given representation in proportion to their population. 

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Why are southern states nervous? 

1. The present composition of Lok Sabha is based upon the 1971 census. Its total number is 543. Every MP in India represented roughly 10.11 lakh population with exception for smaller states. 

2. If the base average population is taken for each MP to represent 20 lakh, UP would get 126 seats, Bihar 85 seats, Rajasthan 41 seats, Tamil Nadu 39 seats, Kerala 18 seats in the Lok Sabha of 707 seats. Thus, the southern states would be losers in proportion to the increased number of seats for northern states of UP, Bihar, Rajasthan, MP. At present, there are 132 seats allotted for southern states in the Lok Sabha of 543 members. The Hindi heartland is represented by 225 members. In the changed scenario, if the delimitation is done after 2026 on the basis of population, the Hindi heartland would have a clear cut majority, thereby, shifting the powerbase to north India and the balance between the north and south would be completely destroyed. 

Projected Seat Distribution for Hindi Heartland (Estimated) Uttarakhand + Uttar Pradesh  - from 85 to 126 Bihar + Jharkhand - From 54 to 85  Madhya Pradesh + Chhattisgarh - From 40 to 50 Rajasthan - From 25 to 40-45 Haryana - From 10 to 16-18 Delhi - From 7 to 10-12 Himachal Pradesh - From 4 to 6-7 Chandigarh - From 1 to 1-2 Total Estimate for Hindi Heartland: Currently: 225 MPs Post-delimitation: Around 350-375 MPs

The increase in the number of MP seats in Lok Sabha would be very much opposed by the southern states. It should be noted that while there would not be any increase in the number of seats for the southern states, the northern states would have a clear cut majority in the Lok Sabha. 

3.  Since, BJP has a dominant position in the Hindi heartland. It will get a majority in the Lok Sabha even without the support from southern states in the changed scenario. This position would be very much detested not only by southern states but by the second largest national party, the congress which has a comparatively strong stronghold in southern India. Moreover, the regional parties would also oppose the new delimitation because in the changing scenario, they would lose relevance in national politics. 

Dangers of delimitation

1. The new delimitation would cause imbalance between the north and south and the power would shift towards north, which would be very much detested by the southern states, congress party, regional parties and other stakeholders. They may start agitation on this issue. 

2. Political analysts are of the view that India is yet to be fully integrated. There are cultural, economic, political and ethnic fault lines. These fault lines have to be bridged before starting new delimitation. 

3.  There is a difference between Hindi speaking northern states and non-Hindi speaking southern states. There is a wide gap between northern and southern states in terms of economic growth and per capita income. The regional disparities are widening with the passage of every year between the north and south.  

4. The dominance of north India politically, has become further accentuated with the arrival of BJP at the centre for the last ten years. The party has complete domination in the Hindi heartland. Critics argue that the new delimitation would further widen the wedge between north and south India which would be detrimental to national unity.  This would also impinge upon unity in diversity so much cherished by our constitution. 

5. The ethnic strife is going on for the last three years in Manipur and the enforcement agencies have an uphill task to control the situation in a small state having 40 lakh population. The entire north eastern regions erupt in frequent ethnic violence on border issues. Terrorists from foreign  countries have been fishing in the troubled waters of various North Eastern states. 

6. Gerrymandering and political manipulation - It is feared that the delimitation may cause alteration of constituencies where certain dominant castes or vote banks of ruling party would get benefit, thereby, getting majority in Lok Sabha by manipulation.   

Solutions to address the complaints of southern states 

1. Strengthening Rajya Sabha - It would be necessary to strengthen Rajya Sabha in financial matters by amending article 110 of our constitution. Every state should get equal representation in the Rajya Sabha irrespective of its population as it obtains in the US where every state sends two members to the senate. This would require amendment in article 80. 

2. Article 81, which provides for seat allocation in the Lok Sabha will have to be amended so that every state should get minimum five seats in the Lok Sabha irrespective of their population. 

3. No state should have more than 15% representation in the Lok Sabha. In order to avoid dominance.

4. The delimitation should take into account not only the population but the development indices while determining the number of constituencies. 

5. Since, the decision of the delimitation commission is final and no writ petition can be filed in the higher judiciary against the decision of the delimitation commission, it is imperative that the selection of the members of delimitation commission should be based upon transparency and impartiality. The selection committee should consist of the Prime Minister, one Cabinet Minister, the Chief Justice of India, the Chief Election Commissioner of India, the leaders of the main opposition  parties in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya  Sabha. 

6. The representation in the Lok Sabha should be fixed in such a way that no one region is dominant politically over other regions. A fine political balance has to be established across the country. 

Conclusion

1. A one size fits all approach to delimitation would create regional tensions. A multifactor approach is needed which should be a mix of population, economic contribution, governing efficiency and political sensitivity in determining the number of constituencies for every state in India to ensure national unity in diversity and political stability across the country.

Disputes over Jammu & Kashmir. Problems and Solutions

Map of Jammu & Kashmir

 Why is it in the news?

1. The foreign minister of India said in London recently that Pakistan vacating POK would resolve the Kashmir issue in its entirety. 

2. He further added that removal of article 370 was number one step for the resolution of the Kashmir issue, followed by restoring growth and economic activity and social justice. Holding assembly elections with a very high turnout further eased tension in Kashmir Valley. He said that return of the stolen part of Kashmir would solve the Kashmir issue. 

Genesis of Kashmir Disputes 

1. During British rule, there were two kinds of states. There were states which were directly controlled by the Company and later on by the British Crown. 

2. There were other kinds of states which were called princely states. These states had restricted autonomy in their internal affairs. They were protected by the British Paramountcy in matters relating to defence, foreign policy and communication. 

3. There were 60% lands under directly ruled British areas with the population of 70% while princely states had 40% lands under their control with 30% of the population. 

4. After independence, the British paramountcy ceased to exist over the princely states. These states were free to get merged either with Pakistan or India on the basis of contiguity or can remain independent sovereign states. 

5. Almost all princely states merged either with India or Pakistan except Junagarh, Hyderabad and Jammu & Kashmir. 

6. The state of Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu King called Hari Singh with 75% of the population constituting Muslims. The king decided to stay out of both India and Pakistan. The Indian political leaders took no steps to obtain Kashmir accession into India and left it to the people of Jammu & Kashmir to decide whether they want to link their fate with India or Pakistan.   

7. After the onset of the winter season, the tribal militia supported by the Pakistani army raided the territory of Jammu & Kashmir. They captured Muzaffarabad, Gilgit, Baltistan and Mirpur. They were about to reach Srinagar. The royal army was no match to the invaders. The king fled to Jammu and solicited military intervention. The stand of the Government of India was that as long as Jammu & Kashmir is an independent state, the deployment of the Indian army would amount to the breach of international law. Thus, the Government of India insisted upon the king to sign over the annexation of J & K with the Indian Union before the Indian army could be deployed in the valley. 

8. The Maharaja signed over the instrument of annexation on 26th October, 1947 and so the Indian Army was sent through air. About 100 aeroplanes were pressed into service. The army flushed out the incursers/ invaders. The war went on for nearly one and half years. The Government of India approached the UN. According to the UN mediated peace formula, a ceasefire was announced on the 1st January 1949 with a line of actual control dividing Jammu & Kashmir between POK and the Indian part of Jammu & Kashmir. According to the UN formula, the plebiscite was to be held in Jammu & Kashmir after the withdrawal of the Pakistani Army from occupied areas of J & K. But Pakistan did not abide by the formula. It did not withdraw its army from occupied areas and so no plebiscite could be held in J & K. After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India changed its stand. It contended that the people of J & K had elected their governments several times. They had their own separate constitution and provisions for safeguards to indigenous people. 

In 2019, the BJP Government removed the special power of J & K under article 370 of the Indian constitution. The state was downgraded to the union territory of J & K and Ladakh. While J & K would have a state assembly headed by lieutenant Governor and Chief Minister, Ladakh would have no legislative assembly. It would be run by an administrator appointed by the President of India.  

Pakistan declared the revocation of article 370 as the violation of UN resolution and so it downgraded diplomatic ties with India. It internationalised the issue by raising it at the UN, OIC and with China. It supported protests and separatists groups in Kashmir. 

As of now, 30% of the territory of the undivided Jammu & Kashmir with 30% of the area are under Pakistan. The remaining 55% of the undivided Jammu & Kashmir with 70% population are under Indian union. The remaining 15% uninhabited land of Aksai Chin was captured by China during the Indo-China war in 1962. 

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India’s stand on J & K

1. India stands for undivided J & K as its integral part. It considers POK including Gilgit Baltistan as illegally occupied by Pakistan. It maintains that Jammu & Kashmir is an internal matter of India and there is no scope for third party involvement. India contends that the Kashmir disputes can be resolved through bilaterally. It converted a ceasefire line into the line of control. 

 

Pakistan’s stand on J & K

1. On the other hand, Pakistan claims J & K as its own territory because it is a Muslim majority state and so, according to two nation theory. It should have been part of Pakistan.  

2. It considers the instrument of accession by the king into the Indian Union as illegitimate and contends that it was signed over under the Indian military pressure. It demands UN supervised plebiscites based on the UN resolution of 1948.      

3. Both countries fought three Wars over J & K in 1947, in 1965 and in 1999. The Pakistani army infiltrated into Kargil but they were flushed out by the Indian army. 

China’s stand on J & K

1. China does not recognise the MacMohan line between India and China. In 1950, it captured Tibet forcefully and laid claim over Aksai Chin. In 1962, it captured about 15% land of undivided J & K called Aksai Chin. It constructed roads linking Xing Ziang province to Tibet through Karakoram which passes through Aksai Chin areas. 

2.In 2020, there occurred skirmishes between Chinese and Indian forces leading to the death of 20 Indian soldiers as well as an uncertain numbers of Chinese soldiers.  

Solutions

1. Noted scholar Istiaq Ahmad opined that both India and Pakistan should end disputes over J & K by recognising Line of Actual Control as international border. He wants that there should be free flow of goods and services between India and Pakistan so that both countries would benefit. Moreover, Pakistan should give a transit route to India so that it can trade with central Asian countries like Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and others. Pakistan would be benefited by the transit fees. 

2. Pakistan should stop exporting terrorists activities into the valley. Both countries should start negotiating with each other on the basis of the Shimla agreement (1972) and the Lahore declaration. 

3. Pakistan should take strict action against terrorist outfits like Lashkar- e- Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeS). 

4. Both countries should have cross border trades, cultural exchanges and demilitarisation of border areas. 

5. There should be efforts to de-radicalise the Kashmiri Youths influenced by extremist ideology. 

6. There should be efforts to attract foreign direct investment in Kashmir. Infrastructure should be strengthened in order to integrate Jammu & Kashmir with India’s economic mainstream. 

7. Efforts should be made for the safe return of Kashmiri Pandit by providing security guarantees. 

8. Encouragement to people to people contact would help in normalising relations between India and Pakistan. 

9. Restoration of a statehood would heal the emotional fractures of the people of J & K. 

10. Economic growth and employment opportunities to the Kashmiri Youths would further help in integrating them with the mainstream of India. 

11. Efforts should be made to conduct elections at Panchayat level so that grassroot democracy is strengthened. 

Conclusion

1. Both India and Pakistan fought four wars against each other. Both countries are developing countries. Their per capita income is very low when compared with developed countries of the world. 

2. It would not be prudent to spend so much on military weapons when the majority of both the countries are struggling to eke out their livelihoods. Both countries have been engaged over Kashmir disputes for the last 75 years. Pakistan has been waging warfare against India through non-state actors who have been trained in Pak Occupied Kashmir. 

3. Both countries should sit together and resolve the disputes amicably without the interference of third power. The Line of Actual Control should be converted into an international border between India and Pakistan. Bilateral trade and people to people contact should be started for the normalisation of relation between two countries. Similarly, India and China should have an amicable settlement over the border so that a Galwan like situation does not happen again. 

Was the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb responsible for the downfall of the empire?

 Why is it in the news? 

1. Samajwadi Party MLA Abu Aazmi sparked a controversy by saying that the conflict between Aurangzeb and Chhattrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was political rather than religious. 

2. He said that Aurangzeb should not be viewed solely as a tyrant but also as an administration who contributed to India’s expansion. 

3. He contended that India flourished under Aurangzeb rule and described the mughal emperor as a great administrator. 

Theory of kingship

1. Aurangzeb was a fanatic Sunni Muslim. His theory of kingship was based upon Islamic theory of kingship. He wanted to convert India, Dar-ul-harb (country of Kafirs) into Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic country). This made him intolerant towards the majority of his subjects. That’s why, he annexed Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda, beheaded Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, cut to pieces Sambhaji Maharaj when he refused to be converted into Muslim under mughal custody. During his regime Rajputs, Jats, Satnamis, Marathas revolted against the Mughal empire. During the war of succession, he gave a religious fatwa contending that his elder brother was heretic and the fate of Hindustan was not safe in his hands. Thus, he rallied behind all orthodox Islamic elements by his side to win the crown of India.   

2.His religious bigotry had its impact upon the economic policy so much so that while the Muslim traders had to pay 2 ½ % custom duties, Hindu traders had to pay 5%. 

3. It is true that more than 80 types of taxes called Aabwabs were abolished. These taxes were borne by common people. 

4. It is also true that by 1700 AD the Mughal Empire had the largest economy in the world. India contributed 24% of the world's GDP. This was because of the comparative peace for 200 years in India. But, these wealths were concentrated among the kings, nobles, zamindars, government officials, merchants and traders. The emperor and his courtiers led a lavish life. On the other hand, the common people were reeling under the heavy weight of taxation. It should be noted that during the period of Aurangzeb, the share of the state revenue went up to half of the produce. 

5.  To sum up , the theory of kingship for Aurangzeb was meant to strengthen Sunni Muslims in India. 

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Religious Policy 

1. His religious policy smacked bigotry. He reversed the religious policy pursued by emperor Akbar. He forbade - 

• Practice of inscribing Kalima on the coins. 

• Celebrating the festivals of Navroz

• Dancers and Musicians in the court. 

• Cultivation of Bhang

• Gambling

• Drinking alcohol

• Practice of Sati

• Celebrating Hindu festivals like Holi, Diwali, Basant Panchami at the court. 

• Appointment of Muhtasibs to enforce islamic laws among Muslims. These officers were given the power to punish all those people who were found guilty of blasphemy. 

2.In addition, during his period famous Hindu temples of Vishwanath at Banaras, Keshavdeo at Mathura and Somnath at Patan were destroyed. 

3. He enforced Zajiya on the Hindus in 1679. Only women slaves, children less than 14 years of age, and beggars were exempted from this tax. Pilgrim tax on Hindus was also revived. He removed most of the Hindu officers from the revenue department. He gives temptation in the form of services , promotions, money, remission of taxes,  gift of lands to Hindus with a view to encourage them to voluntarily accept Islam. 

4. Thus, the religious fanaticism of Aurangzeb set aside all his personal virtues. 

Revolts by Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs and Rajputs

1. The religious persecution of Hindus by Aurangzeb was opposed by Jats under the leadership of Gokul Jat in 1669. The reason for the revolt was the destruction of Hindu temples and disrespecting Hindu women by Mughal Subedar Abdul Nabi. At the battle of Tilpat, however, Gokul Jat was defeated and killed. In spite of the reverses, jats again reorganised under Rajaram and raised the standard of revolt. However, Rajaram was defeated and killed in 1688. But, Jats were again organised under the leadership of Chudaman who continued to fight against the Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb and finally, succeeded in establishing an independent kingdom at Bharatpur. 

2. Satnamis were a religious sect of Hindu religion. They resided around Narnol and Mewat. They tonsured their heads. They were peasants. They were being oppressed by Mughal officers over taxation. They raised the standard of revolt. However, their revolts were crushed. About 3000 Satnamis were killed by the Mughal army. 

3. The ninth Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur detested and openly expressed resentment against the religious bigotry of Aurangzeb.The Guru was summoned to the Mughal Court and was asked to embrace Islam. When the guru refused, he was tortured for five days and thereafter, beheaded. The tenth and the last Guru fought the mughals till its last breath. His four sons were killed by Fauzdar of Sar-hind while at Nanded, he was stabbed to death by two Muslim Pathan.  Guru Govid Singh aroused the dormant energies of Sikhs and converted them into Martial race. Although he could not accomplish the task of defeating the Mughals in his lifetime, Sikhs became the powerful force to reckon with under Banda Bahadur and thereafter. 

4. Aurangzeb alienated Rajputs and thus, reversed the Rajput policy of Akbar. When Raja Jaswant Singh died in Afghanistan during the course of fighting in 1678, his homeland Marwar was annexed with the Mughal Empire contending that Maharaja had no legal successor. However, the two queens of Maharaja gave birth to two sons at Lahore. While one of them died the other named Ajit Singh survived. The commander of Rathors, Durgadas requested Aurangzeb to recognise Ajit Singh as the legal ruler of Marwar. But Aurangzeb did not accept the request and so Durgadas fled from Delhi and reached Marwar. The Mughal army pursued Durgadas and Rajput contingents.The Mughal army destroyed and plundered temples and raised mosques in their places, occupied Marwar. The Rathors retired to hills and deserts and continued their fight till the death of Aurangzeb.  

5.After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah first recognised Ajit Singh as the legal successor and king of Marwar. 

6. Aurangzeb also made an estrangement with Mewar. Fearing the attacks on Marwar, Maharana Raj Singh started fortifying the fort of Chittor. The Mughal army one by one captured Chittor as well as Udaipur. Most of the temples were raised to the ground. However in 1681, Aurangzeb concluded peace with Mewar agreeing to withdraw the Mughal army from Mewar. Maharana Jai Singh accepted the Mansab of 5000 while his son was given the title of Maharaja and was  taken into the service of the emperor. The Maharan ceded the Parganas of Mandal, Pur and Bednor to the Mughals in lieu of Jizya imposed on Mewar.  

7. The religious bigotry of Aurangzeb was very much resented by Champat Rai in Bundelkhand, in Malwa and Bihar. The son of Champat Rai, Chhatrasal later on, succeeded in carving out an independent kingdom of Bundelkhand in 1707 after the death of Aurangzeb. 

Annexation of Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda and Fight against Shivaji 

1. Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687 because both the kingdoms were ruled by Shia rulers.

2. In Deccan Shivaji succeeded in carving out an independent kingdom. In 1659, he killed Afzal Khan, the nobel of Bijapur. In 1663, he made a surprise night attack on the camp of Sahista Khan, the Mughal governor of Deccan at Poona.  Shivaji looted Surat. These successful adventures made Shivaji very much popular in Maharashtra and his power and influence further expanded. 

3. Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh against Shivaji in 1665. The Mughal army defeated Shivaji in a series of battles and so he was forced to make a treaty of Purander. 

4. Most of the forts captured by Shivaji were ceded to the Mughals. He was also persuaded to visit the Mughal court at Agra. But getting insulted in court, he fled from Agra and reached Maharashtra. One by one, he captured all the forts that he had ceded to the Mughals under the treaty of Purander. Thus, in spite of the huge resources of the Mughals, Marathas could not be subdued. 

5. After the death of Shivaji, the Mughal army again renewed its attack upon the Maratha kingdom, captured Shambuji, the son of Shivaji and tortured him to death in 1689 when he refused to embrace Islam. However, the Marathas rose the banner of revolt and continued their resistance. The battle between the Maratha and Mughal turned out to be the fight for Maratha Vatan (Homeland). Thus, the Deccan policy of Aurangzeb completely failed. The vast resources of the Mughal empire were squandered. 

6. Aurangzeb stayed at Deccan for the next 27 years till his death. The long absence of emperors in North India led to the weakening of administrative structure of the Mughals. This was one of the reasons for the downfall of the Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb. 

In addition to the responsibility and religious bigotry of Aurangzeb, there were other factors which caused the downfall of the Mughal empire. These were :

• Trade and Manufacture and agricultural production was not expanding as rapidly as the population. 

• The land revenue was heavy amounting to half of the produce. 

• The demands and expectations of the ruling class expanded. The number of Mansabdars rose from 2069 at the time of Jahangir to 11456 during the later half of Aurangzeb reign. 

• The huge expenditure on architecture during the period of Shahjahan further burdened the state exchequer. 

• Crisis in the Jagirdari system because of the disturbed conditions Jagirdars were unable to realise taxes from peasants. Therefore many of the Mansabdars entered into private agreements with Maratha Sardar on the condition of paying Chauth. Moreover, on account of increasing numbers of Mansabdars, there was a shortage of Jagirs. Moreover, jagirs in the newly conquered areas were less fertile and so jagirdars were not desirous of taking over jagirs. 

• Infightings among the foreign and local Muslim nobles in the court.

• Failure of artillery to deal effectively with the Maratha forts held in the Deccan. 

• War of successions and heavy blood sheds further led to untold miseries and squandering of the Mughal resources. 

• Invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739.

Conclusion

1. Aurangzeb ruled India for almost 50 years. At a personal level, he had set a high standard of morality and chastity in those days. He was free from most of the vices of emperors of those days. He was hardworking and had been engaged in the administrative works and military affairs day in and day out. But in spite of all the personal virtues, his religious bigotry blurred his vision of inclusive India. He wanted to encourage Sunni Islam in India. He failed in his attempt and so alienated himself and the Mughal empire from the majority of Hindus.  The flight of loyalties of Hindu nobles and commanders were the main cause for the downfall of the Mughal empire. In addition, the Mughal empire did not invent any machinery to boost the production to cope up with the rising population. There erupted a crisis in the Jagirdari system and so most of the high ranking nobles and Mansabdars eked out separate kingdoms. His policy towards Maratha was a complete failure. He could not visualise the true nature of the struggle of the Maratha homeland. The killing of Shambhuji further deprived Aurangzeb to negotiate with the legal head of the Marathas. This killing of the Maratha head further infuriated Marathas which percolated down to the grassroot level.  Thus, it became a sore for the Mughal empire which led to its crippling in the later years.  The invasion of Nadir Shah, imprisonment of Mughal emperor Mohammad Shah Rangila and looting of Delhi further exposed the weaknesses of the Mughal empire to the world.  

How to protect Tigers Reserves in India ?

 Why is it in the news? 

1. The Central Government declared Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh as the country's 58th Tiger Reserve on Sunday (Dated 9th of March 2025). This is Madhya Pradesh 9th Tiger Reserve. The park is located in ShivPuri district in the Chambal region of Madhya Pradesh. It has a population of five tigers at present. Two more tigers are to be released into the Park. 

2. India doubled its Tiger Population in a decade from 1706 tigers in 2010 to 3682 in 2022 according to estimates by the National Tiger Conservation authority. 

3. India is home to roughly 75% of the total tiger population. Apart from India, there are 12 countries which are habitat for tigers. These countries are Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Russia, Thailand, Malaysia and Laos. The tiger population has become extinct in countries like South Korea, Kazakhstan and Afghanistan. The rising population has been beneficial for the balanced ecosystem and increased in eco tourism which brought huge revenues. The common belief is that human densities preclude an increase in tiger population. This is wrong. The research shows that it is not the human density but the human attitude which matters the most. 

4. Tigers are spread across 138200 sq km in India. But only 25% of the area is prey rich and protected. Another 45% of tiger habitats are shared with roughly 60 million people. 

5. Tigers disappeared in some areas that were not near national parks, wildlife sanctuaries or other protected areas. Its population was also affected by increasing urbanisation, increased use of forest resources by mankind and higher frequency of armed conflict. In India, habitat is not  a constraint. It is the quality of the habitat which is a constraint. Thus, community support is essential for the conservation of tiger population in India. 

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Where tigers are found in India ?   

1. Tigers are found in tropical moist deciduous forest of central India like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha and Maharashtra where the annual rainfall is between 100 to 200 cm. These forests are characterised by open forest with dense undergrowth, rich diversity with herbivores like deer, sambhar and gaur. Important tiger reserves are Kanha, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Simlipal. 

2.Tigers are also found in dry deciduous forest in India where the annual rainfall is between 50cm to 100 cm. These forests have less dense vegetation but sufficient prey population. Important tiger reserves are Ranthambore, Panna, Sariska and Madhav National Park. 

3.Tigers are also found in tropical and subtropical moist evergreen forest of western ghats, north east India, Andaman and Nicobar island. Important tiger reserves are Periyar, Namdapha and Manas.

4. Tigers are also found in Mangrove forest of Sundarbans. They have adapted themselves according to the climate and thus, are adept in swimming and preying like fish and crabs. 

5. Tigers are also found in the mountain forest of the foothills of Himalayas in the state of Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh. For example, Jim Corbett in Uttarakhand. 

6.  Thus, the large concentration of tigers in India is in the moist and dry deciduous forest. 

7. The key determining factors for ideal tigers depend upon the availability of prey density, forest cover and water availability. Habitat fragmentation limits their numbers. Secondly, the tiger population should not fall below 500 breeding individuals to prevent inbreeding and to maintain diversity. 

8. Tigers are apex predators, thereby, regulating herbivore populations like deer, wild boars to prevent overgrazing. This ensures healthy forest cover, maintains soil fertility, supports biodiversity and stores carbon.  

Difference between tiger reserves and national parks 

1. All tiger reserves are national parks or wildlife sanctuaries but not all national parks are tiger reserves. 

2. Tiger reserves focus specifically on tiger conservation while national parks protect a wide range of biodiversity. 

3. Tiger reserves have a core buffer system. There is limited tourism allowed in buffer zones but core areas have no human activity. On the other hand national parks do not have a core buffer system. No human activity like poaching, hunting and grazing is allowed. 

4. There are 100 national parks and 514 wildlife sanctuaries in India while there are 58 tiger reserves in India. 

Government efforts to conserve tigers in India

1. Project tiger was launched in 1973 for the conservation of tigers across different tiger regions of India. 

2. Government established a national tiger conservation authority in 2005 to oversee the implementation of project tiger and ensure compliance. 

3. India has adopted conservation assured/tiger standards across all tiger reserves to ensure effective management and accreditation of these tiger reserves. 

Strategies to protect tiger population  in India

1. Increasing the habitats of tigers by preventing deforestation,controlling land use changes and mitigating human wildlife conflict. 

2. Enforcement of stringent anti-poaching laws and enhancing surveillance within tiger reserves to protect tigers from hunting. 

3. Involvement of local communities in conservation efforts and promoting sustainable livelihood. 

4. Continuous research and monitoring of tiger populations and herbivores. 

5. Poachers and herd men should not be allowed to enter the reserve parks and centuries. 

6. All the degraded forest lands should be taken up by afforestation. 

7. Fragmented habitats of tigers should be connected by way of afforestation. 

8. All those unproductive lands which are not suitable for crop cultivation should be brought under forestry to increase the ecosystem and habitats for wildlife. 

9. Captive breeding of tigers should be encouraged. 

10. Seminars, conferences, workshops and exhibitions should be organised in national parks and sanctuaries to make people aware about the conservation of tigers and other wildlife.

11. Adequate medical facilities should be provided in the national park and wildlife sanctuaries for the treatment of tigers and other wildlife. 

Conclusion

India has the capacity to provide habitats for 10000 tigers. Thus, there is ample scope to increase the present population of tigers in India. This would be possible by increasing habitation through afforestation and bridging the gap of fragmented forests.The increasing population of tigers would ensure a better ecosystem, biodiversity and dense forests.