Was the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb responsible for the downfall of the empire?

 Why is it in the news? 

1. Samajwadi Party MLA Abu Aazmi sparked a controversy by saying that the conflict between Aurangzeb and Chhattrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was political rather than religious. 

2. He said that Aurangzeb should not be viewed solely as a tyrant but also as an administration who contributed to India’s expansion. 

3. He contended that India flourished under Aurangzeb rule and described the mughal emperor as a great administrator. 

Theory of kingship

1. Aurangzeb was a fanatic Sunni Muslim. His theory of kingship was based upon Islamic theory of kingship. He wanted to convert India, Dar-ul-harb (country of Kafirs) into Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic country). This made him intolerant towards the majority of his subjects. That’s why, he annexed Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda, beheaded Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, cut to pieces Sambhaji Maharaj when he refused to be converted into Muslim under mughal custody. During his regime Rajputs, Jats, Satnamis, Marathas revolted against the Mughal empire. During the war of succession, he gave a religious fatwa contending that his elder brother was heretic and the fate of Hindustan was not safe in his hands. Thus, he rallied behind all orthodox Islamic elements by his side to win the crown of India.   

2.His religious bigotry had its impact upon the economic policy so much so that while the Muslim traders had to pay 2 ½ % custom duties, Hindu traders had to pay 5%. 

3. It is true that more than 80 types of taxes called Aabwabs were abolished. These taxes were borne by common people. 

4. It is also true that by 1700 AD the Mughal Empire had the largest economy in the world. India contributed 24% of the world's GDP. This was because of the comparative peace for 200 years in India. But, these wealths were concentrated among the kings, nobles, zamindars, government officials, merchants and traders. The emperor and his courtiers led a lavish life. On the other hand, the common people were reeling under the heavy weight of taxation. It should be noted that during the period of Aurangzeb, the share of the state revenue went up to half of the produce. 

5.  To sum up , the theory of kingship for Aurangzeb was meant to strengthen Sunni Muslims in India. 

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Religious Policy 

1. His religious policy smacked bigotry. He reversed the religious policy pursued by emperor Akbar. He forbade - 

• Practice of inscribing Kalima on the coins. 

• Celebrating the festivals of Navroz

• Dancers and Musicians in the court. 

• Cultivation of Bhang

• Gambling

• Drinking alcohol

• Practice of Sati

• Celebrating Hindu festivals like Holi, Diwali, Basant Panchami at the court. 

• Appointment of Muhtasibs to enforce islamic laws among Muslims. These officers were given the power to punish all those people who were found guilty of blasphemy. 

2.In addition, during his period famous Hindu temples of Vishwanath at Banaras, Keshavdeo at Mathura and Somnath at Patan were destroyed. 

3. He enforced Zajiya on the Hindus in 1679. Only women slaves, children less than 14 years of age, and beggars were exempted from this tax. Pilgrim tax on Hindus was also revived. He removed most of the Hindu officers from the revenue department. He gives temptation in the form of services , promotions, money, remission of taxes,  gift of lands to Hindus with a view to encourage them to voluntarily accept Islam. 

4. Thus, the religious fanaticism of Aurangzeb set aside all his personal virtues. 

Revolts by Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs and Rajputs

1. The religious persecution of Hindus by Aurangzeb was opposed by Jats under the leadership of Gokul Jat in 1669. The reason for the revolt was the destruction of Hindu temples and disrespecting Hindu women by Mughal Subedar Abdul Nabi. At the battle of Tilpat, however, Gokul Jat was defeated and killed. In spite of the reverses, jats again reorganised under Rajaram and raised the standard of revolt. However, Rajaram was defeated and killed in 1688. But, Jats were again organised under the leadership of Chudaman who continued to fight against the Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb and finally, succeeded in establishing an independent kingdom at Bharatpur. 

2. Satnamis were a religious sect of Hindu religion. They resided around Narnol and Mewat. They tonsured their heads. They were peasants. They were being oppressed by Mughal officers over taxation. They raised the standard of revolt. However, their revolts were crushed. About 3000 Satnamis were killed by the Mughal army. 

3. The ninth Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur detested and openly expressed resentment against the religious bigotry of Aurangzeb.The Guru was summoned to the Mughal Court and was asked to embrace Islam. When the guru refused, he was tortured for five days and thereafter, beheaded. The tenth and the last Guru fought the mughals till its last breath. His four sons were killed by Fauzdar of Sar-hind while at Nanded, he was stabbed to death by two Muslim Pathan.  Guru Govid Singh aroused the dormant energies of Sikhs and converted them into Martial race. Although he could not accomplish the task of defeating the Mughals in his lifetime, Sikhs became the powerful force to reckon with under Banda Bahadur and thereafter. 

4. Aurangzeb alienated Rajputs and thus, reversed the Rajput policy of Akbar. When Raja Jaswant Singh died in Afghanistan during the course of fighting in 1678, his homeland Marwar was annexed with the Mughal Empire contending that Maharaja had no legal successor. However, the two queens of Maharaja gave birth to two sons at Lahore. While one of them died the other named Ajit Singh survived. The commander of Rathors, Durgadas requested Aurangzeb to recognise Ajit Singh as the legal ruler of Marwar. But Aurangzeb did not accept the request and so Durgadas fled from Delhi and reached Marwar. The Mughal army pursued Durgadas and Rajput contingents.The Mughal army destroyed and plundered temples and raised mosques in their places, occupied Marwar. The Rathors retired to hills and deserts and continued their fight till the death of Aurangzeb.  

5.After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah first recognised Ajit Singh as the legal successor and king of Marwar. 

6. Aurangzeb also made an estrangement with Mewar. Fearing the attacks on Marwar, Maharana Raj Singh started fortifying the fort of Chittor. The Mughal army one by one captured Chittor as well as Udaipur. Most of the temples were raised to the ground. However in 1681, Aurangzeb concluded peace with Mewar agreeing to withdraw the Mughal army from Mewar. Maharana Jai Singh accepted the Mansab of 5000 while his son was given the title of Maharaja and was  taken into the service of the emperor. The Maharan ceded the Parganas of Mandal, Pur and Bednor to the Mughals in lieu of Jizya imposed on Mewar.  

7. The religious bigotry of Aurangzeb was very much resented by Champat Rai in Bundelkhand, in Malwa and Bihar. The son of Champat Rai, Chhatrasal later on, succeeded in carving out an independent kingdom of Bundelkhand in 1707 after the death of Aurangzeb. 

Annexation of Shia states of Bijapur and Golconda and Fight against Shivaji 

1. Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687 because both the kingdoms were ruled by Shia rulers.

2. In Deccan Shivaji succeeded in carving out an independent kingdom. In 1659, he killed Afzal Khan, the nobel of Bijapur. In 1663, he made a surprise night attack on the camp of Sahista Khan, the Mughal governor of Deccan at Poona.  Shivaji looted Surat. These successful adventures made Shivaji very much popular in Maharashtra and his power and influence further expanded. 

3. Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh against Shivaji in 1665. The Mughal army defeated Shivaji in a series of battles and so he was forced to make a treaty of Purander. 

4. Most of the forts captured by Shivaji were ceded to the Mughals. He was also persuaded to visit the Mughal court at Agra. But getting insulted in court, he fled from Agra and reached Maharashtra. One by one, he captured all the forts that he had ceded to the Mughals under the treaty of Purander. Thus, in spite of the huge resources of the Mughals, Marathas could not be subdued. 

5. After the death of Shivaji, the Mughal army again renewed its attack upon the Maratha kingdom, captured Shambuji, the son of Shivaji and tortured him to death in 1689 when he refused to embrace Islam. However, the Marathas rose the banner of revolt and continued their resistance. The battle between the Maratha and Mughal turned out to be the fight for Maratha Vatan (Homeland). Thus, the Deccan policy of Aurangzeb completely failed. The vast resources of the Mughal empire were squandered. 

6. Aurangzeb stayed at Deccan for the next 27 years till his death. The long absence of emperors in North India led to the weakening of administrative structure of the Mughals. This was one of the reasons for the downfall of the Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb. 

In addition to the responsibility and religious bigotry of Aurangzeb, there were other factors which caused the downfall of the Mughal empire. These were :

• Trade and Manufacture and agricultural production was not expanding as rapidly as the population. 

• The land revenue was heavy amounting to half of the produce. 

• The demands and expectations of the ruling class expanded. The number of Mansabdars rose from 2069 at the time of Jahangir to 11456 during the later half of Aurangzeb reign. 

• The huge expenditure on architecture during the period of Shahjahan further burdened the state exchequer. 

• Crisis in the Jagirdari system because of the disturbed conditions Jagirdars were unable to realise taxes from peasants. Therefore many of the Mansabdars entered into private agreements with Maratha Sardar on the condition of paying Chauth. Moreover, on account of increasing numbers of Mansabdars, there was a shortage of Jagirs. Moreover, jagirs in the newly conquered areas were less fertile and so jagirdars were not desirous of taking over jagirs. 

• Infightings among the foreign and local Muslim nobles in the court.

• Failure of artillery to deal effectively with the Maratha forts held in the Deccan. 

• War of successions and heavy blood sheds further led to untold miseries and squandering of the Mughal resources. 

• Invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739.

Conclusion

1. Aurangzeb ruled India for almost 50 years. At a personal level, he had set a high standard of morality and chastity in those days. He was free from most of the vices of emperors of those days. He was hardworking and had been engaged in the administrative works and military affairs day in and day out. But in spite of all the personal virtues, his religious bigotry blurred his vision of inclusive India. He wanted to encourage Sunni Islam in India. He failed in his attempt and so alienated himself and the Mughal empire from the majority of Hindus.  The flight of loyalties of Hindu nobles and commanders were the main cause for the downfall of the Mughal empire. In addition, the Mughal empire did not invent any machinery to boost the production to cope up with the rising population. There erupted a crisis in the Jagirdari system and so most of the high ranking nobles and Mansabdars eked out separate kingdoms. His policy towards Maratha was a complete failure. He could not visualise the true nature of the struggle of the Maratha homeland. The killing of Shambhuji further deprived Aurangzeb to negotiate with the legal head of the Marathas. This killing of the Maratha head further infuriated Marathas which percolated down to the grassroot level.  Thus, it became a sore for the Mughal empire which led to its crippling in the later years.  The invasion of Nadir Shah, imprisonment of Mughal emperor Mohammad Shah Rangila and looting of Delhi further exposed the weaknesses of the Mughal empire to the world.  

How to protect Tigers Reserves in India ?

 Why is it in the news? 

1. The Central Government declared Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh as the country's 58th Tiger Reserve on Sunday (Dated 9th of March 2025). This is Madhya Pradesh 9th Tiger Reserve. The park is located in ShivPuri district in the Chambal region of Madhya Pradesh. It has a population of five tigers at present. Two more tigers are to be released into the Park. 

2. India doubled its Tiger Population in a decade from 1706 tigers in 2010 to 3682 in 2022 according to estimates by the National Tiger Conservation authority. 

3. India is home to roughly 75% of the total tiger population. Apart from India, there are 12 countries which are habitat for tigers. These countries are Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Russia, Thailand, Malaysia and Laos. The tiger population has become extinct in countries like South Korea, Kazakhstan and Afghanistan. The rising population has been beneficial for the balanced ecosystem and increased in eco tourism which brought huge revenues. The common belief is that human densities preclude an increase in tiger population. This is wrong. The research shows that it is not the human density but the human attitude which matters the most. 

4. Tigers are spread across 138200 sq km in India. But only 25% of the area is prey rich and protected. Another 45% of tiger habitats are shared with roughly 60 million people. 

5. Tigers disappeared in some areas that were not near national parks, wildlife sanctuaries or other protected areas. Its population was also affected by increasing urbanisation, increased use of forest resources by mankind and higher frequency of armed conflict. In India, habitat is not  a constraint. It is the quality of the habitat which is a constraint. Thus, community support is essential for the conservation of tiger population in India. 

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Where tigers are found in India ?   

1. Tigers are found in tropical moist deciduous forest of central India like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha and Maharashtra where the annual rainfall is between 100 to 200 cm. These forests are characterised by open forest with dense undergrowth, rich diversity with herbivores like deer, sambhar and gaur. Important tiger reserves are Kanha, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Simlipal. 

2.Tigers are also found in dry deciduous forest in India where the annual rainfall is between 50cm to 100 cm. These forests have less dense vegetation but sufficient prey population. Important tiger reserves are Ranthambore, Panna, Sariska and Madhav National Park. 

3.Tigers are also found in tropical and subtropical moist evergreen forest of western ghats, north east India, Andaman and Nicobar island. Important tiger reserves are Periyar, Namdapha and Manas.

4. Tigers are also found in Mangrove forest of Sundarbans. They have adapted themselves according to the climate and thus, are adept in swimming and preying like fish and crabs. 

5. Tigers are also found in the mountain forest of the foothills of Himalayas in the state of Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh. For example, Jim Corbett in Uttarakhand. 

6.  Thus, the large concentration of tigers in India is in the moist and dry deciduous forest. 

7. The key determining factors for ideal tigers depend upon the availability of prey density, forest cover and water availability. Habitat fragmentation limits their numbers. Secondly, the tiger population should not fall below 500 breeding individuals to prevent inbreeding and to maintain diversity. 

8. Tigers are apex predators, thereby, regulating herbivore populations like deer, wild boars to prevent overgrazing. This ensures healthy forest cover, maintains soil fertility, supports biodiversity and stores carbon.  

Difference between tiger reserves and national parks 

1. All tiger reserves are national parks or wildlife sanctuaries but not all national parks are tiger reserves. 

2. Tiger reserves focus specifically on tiger conservation while national parks protect a wide range of biodiversity. 

3. Tiger reserves have a core buffer system. There is limited tourism allowed in buffer zones but core areas have no human activity. On the other hand national parks do not have a core buffer system. No human activity like poaching, hunting and grazing is allowed. 

4. There are 100 national parks and 514 wildlife sanctuaries in India while there are 58 tiger reserves in India. 

Government efforts to conserve tigers in India

1. Project tiger was launched in 1973 for the conservation of tigers across different tiger regions of India. 

2. Government established a national tiger conservation authority in 2005 to oversee the implementation of project tiger and ensure compliance. 

3. India has adopted conservation assured/tiger standards across all tiger reserves to ensure effective management and accreditation of these tiger reserves. 

Strategies to protect tiger population  in India

1. Increasing the habitats of tigers by preventing deforestation,controlling land use changes and mitigating human wildlife conflict. 

2. Enforcement of stringent anti-poaching laws and enhancing surveillance within tiger reserves to protect tigers from hunting. 

3. Involvement of local communities in conservation efforts and promoting sustainable livelihood. 

4. Continuous research and monitoring of tiger populations and herbivores. 

5. Poachers and herd men should not be allowed to enter the reserve parks and centuries. 

6. All the degraded forest lands should be taken up by afforestation. 

7. Fragmented habitats of tigers should be connected by way of afforestation. 

8. All those unproductive lands which are not suitable for crop cultivation should be brought under forestry to increase the ecosystem and habitats for wildlife. 

9. Captive breeding of tigers should be encouraged. 

10. Seminars, conferences, workshops and exhibitions should be organised in national parks and sanctuaries to make people aware about the conservation of tigers and other wildlife.

11. Adequate medical facilities should be provided in the national park and wildlife sanctuaries for the treatment of tigers and other wildlife. 

Conclusion

India has the capacity to provide habitats for 10000 tigers. Thus, there is ample scope to increase the present population of tigers in India. This would be possible by increasing habitation through afforestation and bridging the gap of fragmented forests.The increasing population of tigers would ensure a better ecosystem, biodiversity and dense forests.   

Informal Sector in the Indian Economy

 Why is it in the news ? 

1.According to the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), as of 2024, the informal sector in India constitutes around 73.2% of all workers engaged in the non-agricultural sector, indicating a significant portion of the workforce is employed in the informal economy. Thus, the informal sector consists of small and medium enterprises and household proprietary  and partnership establishments. It accounts for almost half of India’s economic output and more than 3/4th of employment. But the sector has faced challenges so much so that over the last seven years many units have shut down; about 17.45 lakh jobs have been lost on account of demonetisation (2016), GST implementation (2017) and Covid 19 according to Annual Survey of Un-incorporated Enterprises  (ASUE). This is why the government has been focusing on formalising the informal sector and improving the welfare of its workers through various schemes and reforms. As India is embarking upon higher growth in the economy, the growth of the informal sector is a must for sustainable development. 

Introduction

1.The share of the informal unorganised sector is almost 50% in the Indian economy. 

2. Unorganised/ informal sector refers to those enterprises whose activities or collection of data is not regulated under any legal provision and those who do not maintain any regular accounts. Non-availability of regular information has been the main criteria for treating the sector as unorganised. This definition helps to demarcate organised from the unorganised sector. For example, units not registered under the factories act 1948 constitute unorganised components of manufacturing on account of activity not regulated under any act. In case of the sectors like trade, transport, hotels, restaurant, storage, warehousing, services and all non-public sector units constitute the unorganised sector. However, the enterprises covered under annual survey of industries do not fall under the purview of unorganised sector survey. 

3. According to the national commission for enterprises in the unorganised sector, the unorganised sector consists of all unincorporated private enterprises owned by individuals or households engaged in the sale and production of goods and services operated on a proprietor or partnership basis having less than 10 total workers. 

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Characteristics and problems of the informal economy

1. The informal economy consists of economic activities that are not regulated by the government and thus operates outside formal legal frameworks like taxation, labour laws and business regulations. It includes self employed workers, daily wage labourers, street vendors, domestic workers, small scale farmers and workers engaged in unorganised enterprises. Self employed workers in the non-agricultural sector are street vendors and hawkers, auto rickshaw drivers, small shopkeepers and retailers, barbers, tailors, cobblers, mechanics and handicrafts and cottage industry artisans. Agricultural workers include small and marginal farmers, landless labourers, sharecroppers and tenant farmers, plantation workers and fisherman and livestock rearers.  Vulnerable groups include workers employed in firecracker industry, beedi making, anganwadi and asha workers, rag pickers and migrant labourers. Informal enterprises include repair shops, roadside food stalls, tea vendors, small factories and workshops and unregistered textiles and garment units.  

2. Informal economy have following problems- 

• No fixed wages, social security or job stability. 

• Lack of formal contracts and legal protection. 

• Often cash based transaction with minimum tax contributions

• Low productivity and poor working conditions

• High vulnerability to economic shocks

• Gender inequality in remuneration

• Limited access to credit

• Seasonal employment 

• Restricted access to government support and financial services

Government’s initiative to address challenges of informal sector

1. Employment 

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) provides 100 days of paid employment in rural areas. The Government allotted  86,000 crores in the budget of 2025-26. 

• National Rural Livelihood Mission - It is focused upon generating self employment and organising self help groups for self employment.

• Din Dayal Upadhyaya Gramin Kaushal Yojana - It aims at skilled development and job placement for rural youth. 

2.Financial inclusion and credit support

• Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana - It provides collateral free loans to micro and small businesses. 

• PM SVA Nidhi 2020 - It provides loans up to 50 thousand for street vendors to start businesses. 

• Stand up and start up India - It encourages entrepreneurship among SC/ST and women. 

3. Skill Development Initiatives - 

• Skill India Mission (2015) - Training programmes have been launched for informal workers to increase their efficiency and skill upgradation. 

• Digital India Programme - Encourages digital payments and financial literacy. 

4.Formalisation and labour law reforms - 

• Code on social security 2020 - It extends social security benefits to unorganised workers. 

• GST composition scheme - Simplifies tax compliance for small businesses. 

5.Social security and welfare scheme 

• Atal Pension Yojana - It targets unorganised sector workers

• Ayushman Bharat  (PM-JAY) - Free health insurance up to 5 lakh for informal workers and their families. 

• Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan Dhan - Pension scheme providing ₹3000 per month after retirement. 

• E-Shram portal (2021) - A national database to provide social security benefits to informal workers. 

Way Forward 

1. Promote formalisation by simplifying business registration and reducing compliance burdens. 

2. Encouraging digital inclusion by providing training in digital payments and business management.

3. Easing credit access by providing microfinance and low interest loans. 

4. Improving skill upgradation of informal workers to increase their employability. 

5. Strengthening and expanding social security networks by providing pension, health and insurance coverage. 

Conclusion

1. The informal sector in India constitutes farmers, daily wage earners, small traders , contract workers and self employed individuals. 

2. They contribute 50% to the GDP of India but they lack social security, poor condition of work, have poor wages and lack of legal protection. 

3. Government has launched many programmes for their welfare. It is necessary to formalise them into the Indian economy so that they can get easy access to finances. 

4. The more financial inclusion of the informal sector is obtained, the more would be beneficial for the Indian economy. 

5. The informal sector is crucial for absorbing the labour force that cannot find employment in the formal sector. 

What are Avalanches?

 

Why is it in the news ? 

1. Twenty four workers went missing after an avalanche hit the BRO project site in Uttrakhand. Efforts are being made by Indian Army personnel to rescue workers trapped under mountains of ice affected by continuous snowfall. It is feared that 24 workers were trapped beneath the ice after a devastating glacier avalanche hit a Border Road Organisation Project site at Mana village in the Chamoli District of Uttarakhand on 28th February. 

2. The Avalanche hit the containers inside which construction workers and earth mover drivers were sleeping. There has been continuous snowfall in the area for the past 48 hours. While many of the workers manage to run out of the sheds, others are trapped under a mountain of ice that has covered the site.  

3. Due to the rescue operations, all but four workers could not be rescued and they are supposed to be killed. However, drones, radars, sniffer dogs are being deployed to trace out bodies. The rescue operation is getting difficult because about 20 km of the road leading to the place of occurrence is covered with 5ft of snow and so it is cut off from the main highway. 

4. It should be noted that western Himalaya regions including J & K, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are prone to frequent avalanches.  

What are Avalanches?

1.Avalanches are masses of materials that move rapidly down a slope. They occur when material on a slope breaks loose from its surroundings and quickly gathers additional materials as it descends. Avalanches can involve materials like rock, ice, debris and snow. Snow avalanches are the most common and may range from small shifts of loose snow to large slab avalanches. They descend at a high speed of 130 km/hr, causing significant destruction of forest and villages. 

2.Avalanches cause damage to roads. Traffic is blocked. Structures coming in the way of an avalanche like bridges, villages, schools, hospitals are damaged. Rivers are blocked causing floods. 

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What are the different types of Avalanches? 

Avalanches can be categorised into different types based upon the materials involved. These are snow avalanches, rock avalanches, ice avalanches and debris avalanches.  

How do they occur ? 

1.Avalanches are caused by a combination of terrain, snowpack and triggers.

• Terrain - Steep slopes of mountains at 30 degree to 45 degree are prone to avalanches.

• Snowpack conditions - Weak layers of snow beneath heavier layers can lead to instability. 

• Triggers - Avalanches can be caused by heavy snowfall, rapid temperature changes, earthquakes, vibrations from explosion, human activities like construction, skiing and tracking. 

How do weather conditions affect Avalanche risks? 

1. Weather conditions significantly affect avalanche risks by influencing the stability of the snowpack. Important weather related factors include 

• Heavy snowfall - Heavy accumulation of snow can overload weaknesses in the existing snowpack leading to its instability. If the new snow does not bond well with the underlying layers, it increases the risk of slab avalanches. 

• Strong winds - Strong winds transport loose snow from one area to another causing excessive accumulation on leeward slopes. Secondly, the extra weight increases stress on the snowpack making it unstable and prone to avalanches. Wind slabs are compact snow layers formed by wind driven snow deposition. These slabs create a hard and dense layer over a weaker snow layer. These slabs can easily move down swiftly when disturbed by natural or manmade activities. 

• Rapid temperature rise - A sudden increase in temperature can weaken the snowpack by melting the bonds between the snow layers, thereby, causing avalanches. 

• Rainfall - Rainfall can saturate the snowpack reducing its stability and thereby increasing the possibility of avalanches. 

 Avalanche prone areas in India

1. Avalanches are common in the western Himalayan region. They also occur in the eastern Himalayan region of Arunachal Pradesh. 

2. Gulmarg, Sonmarg and Dras regions of Jammu & Kashmir. 

3. Ladakh

4. Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh

5. Chamoli, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Pitoragarh in Uttrakhand

6. Arunachal Pradesh - Tawang and other high altitude border areas. 

Snow Avalanche Zones 

1.Red Zone - These are areas which witness snow avalanches frequently. It has an impact pressure of more than three tons per square metre.  

2. Blue Zone - Where the avalanche force is less than 3 tons per square metre. These areas can be inhabited by the people. But such areas have to be vacated on warning. 

3. Yellow Zone - These areas are visited by avalanches occasionally. 

What safety measures can be taken to mitigate the impact of Avalanches? 

1. Construction of snow barriers and fences to hold snow in place and prevent them from sudden collapse. 

2. Controlled explosion for controlled avalanches often used by the Indian army. 

3. Artificial terraces and afforestation.

4.Construction of retaining walls to block the flow of avalanches before they reach the road sides. 

5. Deflecting structures are installed to deflect the flow of an avalanche. 

6. Snow sheds are constructed which act as roof structures installed over a road to allow the flow of an avalanche over the roof. 

7. Establishment of avalanche monitoring centres by DRDO in avalanche prone areas. 

8. Establishment of satellite and weather forecasting centres to help prediction of snowfall and avalanche risk.

9. Use of sniffer dogs, beacons and sensors to track trapped individuals. 

10. Personnels of the army, ITBP and Disaster rescue teams are trained. 

Conclusion

Avalanches are a major natural hazard in high altitude regions, particularly in the Himalayas. These regions experience heavy snowfalls and strong winds creating unstable wind slabs and triggering collapses. Although avalanches cannot be prevented, its impact can be reduced by structural reinforcements, early warning systems and controlled detonations. Awareness and preparedness of rescue operators, ITBP and Army are crucial for effective rescue operations and minimising the loss of lives and property.