Social Changes in Mughal Period (1526-1740 AD)

 

Introduction

1. Babur established the Mughal dynasty in 1526 AD by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat and also defeated Rana Sangha, Medini Rai, and Afghans.

2. The Mughal dynasty continued till 1857 but its effectiveness declined after 1740 AD.

3. During the Mughal period almost all parts of India up to Hindu Kush mountain was integrated.

4. The growth of Political integration was paralleled by cultural integration. 

5. Indian society developed a more or less unified culture despite differences in race, religion, and language. 

6. The period was also marked by economic development and growth. Trade and manufacturing expanded. There was expansion and improvement in cultivation. 

7. The 17th century witnessed great strides in Gujarat, Coromandel coast and Bengal.

Mutual harmony and toleration

1. During this period because of the Bhakti and Sufi movement, gradual understanding of fundamental tenets of Hinduism and Islam developed.

2. Bhakti saints laid emphasis on true faith rather than to formal observance. 

3. There was a setback to the growth of rational sciences. Similarly, India lagged behind in the development of the navy. Watch Full Video In Hindi On Youtube By Clicking On The Icon🔻

Social changes 

1. Caste continued to dominate. 

2. The Bhakti movement and Nath Panthi yogis could hardly make a dent in it.

3. Brahmins continued to claim privileged positions for themselves including the exclusive right to preach and educate.

4. Brahmins acquiesced in the advocacy of path of devotion as a way of salvation of all castes specially for Shudras.

5. Position of women worsened. 

6. There was no right to Hindu women for remarriage or share in their father’s property while muslim women could inherit property of their father. The Hindu women could claim only stree dhan (wedding gifts) from their parents. 

7. The ruling class remained strongly aristocratic in character.

8. There was less opportunities for people of lower classes to go on the higher scale. 

9. Because of the less opportunities of war, now the Rajput caste started giving primacy over descent instead of military achievement. The open ended Rajput caste became closed. 

10. During this period, a large number of tribals were Hinduised. 

An unequal society

1. Almost all foreign accounts tell us that India was rich and wealthy. Its ruling class led an ostentatious lifestyle while the ordinary people like peasants, artisans and labourers were suffering from acute poverty.

2. Peasants and lower classes had no sufficient clothes to cover their bodies,

3. Common People went on bare footed.

4. The ruling class consisted of the emperor and his scions, kings, nobility  and zamindars. They were a privileged class. 

5. Mughal nobles were drawn from central Asia, Iran, Khurasan and Afghanistan

6. During the period of Akbar, Hindu nobility formed 16% while during the period of Aurangzeb, Hindus nobility constituted 33%. 

7. Muslim and Hindu nobles kept a large number of women in their Harem. 

8. Polygamy became common among nobility and zamindars. 

9. The Mughal nobility constituted a composite ruling class representing different regions and religions. There were two kinds of nobles in the Mughal court - foreigners and indigenous.  Among the foreign nobles they were divided into Irani who were drawn from Iran and Turani who were drawn from central Asia. Among Hindu nobles, Rajputs of northern India and Marathas of Deccan constituted two important powerful groups in the Mughal court. 

10. Rapid growth in the number of nobility during the 17th century led to the crisis of the jagirdari system. 

11. The rural areas were dominated by zamindars. 

12. In addition to their own zamindari, they had the right to collect land revenue and the commission for collecting taxes  went up to 25%.

13. Peasants had hereditary rights in land and they could not be dispossessed from land as long as they paid the land revenue. 

14. So, peasants and zamindars had their own hereditary rights in lands. 

15. There were also numerous Rajas or kings who had accepted the sovereignty of Mughals in lieu of a fixed amount of annual homage to the Mughal emperor .

16. These Rajas or kings collected land revenue in their areas and had sufficient internal autonomy.

Middle class 

1. Because of the relative peace during the Mughal period, India had large number of rich traders and merchants. 

2. In addition, small Mansabdars, shop keepers, professionals like Hakim, musicians, artists, historians, scholars, Qazis, theologians, government officers formed the middle class.

3. The religious divines, scholars were granted small tracts of land for their maintenance and these grants were called Madad-e-mass. These land grants were often hereditary while the government officers were paid in cash.

Policy of Akbar

1. Mughal period saw harmonisation of relationship between Hindus and Muslims. 

2. Akbar abolished Jizya, pilgrimage tax, ban on prisoners of war to convert into Islam.

3. The Sati system was abolished by Akbar but with little success. 

4. Ban on child marriages but with no tangible results.

5. The policy of Sulah-Kul (conciliation to all) proved beneficial to the Hindu-Muslim unity.

6. Rajput policy further strengthened the harmony between Hindu and Muslim.

7. Rajput leaders became the solid rock behind the Mughal empire.

Policy of Aurangzeb

1. He re-imposed Jizya, toll tax, converted prisoners of wars into Islam  and destroyed many temples.

2. He gave rebates to Muslim traders in custom duties. While the Muslim traders were charged only 2.5 % custom duties, the Hindu traders were charged 5% on merchandise.

3. He annexed the Shia state of Bijapur and Golconda. 

4. He fought against Shivaji and was reluctant to give Marathas the local autonomy or watan (homeland).

5. He got killed Sambhaji, which led to the recurrent revolts among Marathas against Mughals. 

6. He suppressed Jat and Satnami revolts.  

7. He got killed Guru Teg Bahadur and four sons of Guru Govind Singh, and thereby alienated Sikhs from Mughals.

8. He Reversed the Rajput Policy of Akbar. And this was one of the reasons for the alienation of Hindus from the Mughals. 

Conclusion

1. The Mughal period saw harmony among Hindus and Muslims. But during the reign of Aurangzeb, this harmony was disrupted. 

2. India was the biggest economy of the world in 1700 AD but the society was very much unequal .

3. While the zamindars and nobles led the life of luxuries, common people eked out their livelihood with great difficulties.

4. In most of the cases, they could not earn more than Rs.5 per month. 

5. Overall, the society was peaceful and harmonious. 

6. Mughals did not face large scale revolts like during the sultanate period before the reign of Aurangzeb.

7. The reign of Aurangzeb saw large number of revolts by Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Afghans, Satnamis. 

8. The disharmony created by fanatic Aurangzeb led to the downfall of the Mughal empire and in 1739 by the attack of Nadir Shah, the Mughals were exposed to the world.

9. While the trade and manufactures continued to expand during the 18th century, in spite of the downfall of the Mughal Empire, it remained backward not only in the field of science and the technology but in size also. The craftsmen used simple tools and therefore. their efficiency remained low. Because of the concentration of wealth among zamindars, nobles and the emperors, the artisans and craftsmen could not become entrepreneurs like in Europe. The domestic market was limited and artisans and craftsmen had to be dependent upon merchants and traders.  Secondly, the skill of Indian artisans and availability in abundance inhibited efforts to develop and apply machine power to productive enterprises.  This resulted in low productivity. 

10. The Mughal period heralded cultural integration in India. They developed a unified culture despite differences in race, religion, ethnicity and language. This unified culture was reflected in an outburst of creative activity. However, this integrated culture came under pressure on account of attacks from the orthodox elements of Hinduism and Islam. On the whole, this cultural unity between Hindus and Muslims continued till the 19th century when people of both religious groups fought against British rule in the 1857 Revolt.  

What was Dharma in ancient India?

 Introduction

1.The logo of the Supreme Court of India is Yato Dharmah, Tato Jayah. It means where there is  a Dharma, there is victory. 

2.Dharma in ancient India had a wider connotation. It meant righteousness or virtue. 

3.According to Dr. S Radhakrishnan, every form of life, every group of men has its Dharma, which is the law of its beings. Dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth or things, adharma or vice is opposition to it. 

4.According to P.V. Kane, the writers of Dharma shastras meant by Dharma not a creed or religion but a mode of life or a code of conduct which regulated a man’s work and activities as a member of society and as an individual. Dharma was intended to enable man to reach the goal of human existence, that is, Moksha or liberation from the cycle of life and birth. 

5.According to Bhagwat Geeta, Dharma is equated with Rta, that is, cosmic order and it is treated as synonymous with truth. He who protects Dharma is protected in turn by Dharma (Dharmo Rakshati Rakshita). It is the law of nature which helps man to attain the supreme end of life (Moksha or Liberation). 

Dharma is not religion

1.In common parlance, Dharma is equated with religion like Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism or the likes. The central theme of a religion is belief in God or supernatural beings which controls the universe, a messenger of God, a holy book and a set pattern of rituals to be observed during one's life and after his death. However, in Hinduism there are more than one single sacred books. Nor is there a concept of the messenger of God. It has no founder or central authority to command its followers. The concept of purity and pollution plays an important role in Hinduism. It is tolerant towards all other religions and does not believe in conversions. 

2.On the other hand, Dharma consciously aims at achieving a higher perfection of human life that is moksha. It involves knowledge of reality and performance of duties. Dharma is the foundation of social structure. It has universal application. It enjoins the members of the society to subject themselves to obligations and responsibility regardless of individual differences. 

3.Ancient law givers developed the concept of Varnasharam Dharma. It means that there are four varnas, that is, Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. There are four ashramas, that is, Brahmacharya, Grahashthya, Vanprastha and Sanyasa. Thus, every varna has specific functions in conjunction with the station of his life. For example, if a person comes from Brahmin Varna and he is below 25 years of age, his Dharma is to gain knowledge, to know the rituals Hindu religion to improve his personality and character, to observe celibacy, to offer gurudakshina after the completion of his study. Similarly, if a person comes from a Kshatriya varna and if he is below 25 years of age, his principal dharma is to learn and practise different kinds of weapons to safeguards himself and the society, to understand the intricacies of governance because in the next stage of life he will have to administer the community.  

Kinds of Dharma 

1.Manu speaks of Sapta Dharma or seven types of Dharmas. These are 

• Sanatan Dharma (eternal and unchanging principle of Dharma) - It consists of general rules and duties which are almost universal in nature. These are truth non-violence, non stealing, to observe celibacy, control of senses etc.

• Raj Dharma - It is the duty of the king to observe equalities of laws and treat everybody equally, to protect them from enemies from within the state and from without, that is, protection from external aggression. 

• Stree Dharma - It implies duties, responsibilities and purity of character of women. It signals fidelity towards their husbands.

• Dampatya Dharma (Conjugal) - Duties of husband and wife towards each other, their family, distant relatives and society.

• Swa Dharma -  It means duties of different varnas according to the station of his life. 

• Ashram Dharma - It refers to duties of a person in different stages of his life. 

• Apad Dharma - It refers to the specific rules to be followed by individuals when they are or the society is in deep crises. 

Importance of Dharma in ancient India 

1.In the book Arthashastra, Kautilya exhorts the king to be Dharma Pravartak, means protector of the Dharma. Thus, he laid stress upon the duty of the King was that he must ensure that there must not be any deviation from duties each Varna of the society had been assigned to. There must not be intermixture of Varna on account of anuloma or pratiloma marriages. The king must ensure that people lead virtuous lives. 

2.The emperor Ashoka, propagated Dhamma but it was not a sectarian faith. Although his personal religion was Buddhism, he never forced his subjects to follow the principles of Buddhism. Instead, he propagated the principle of Dhamma. The basic  objective was to preserve the social order. He ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to the Brahmins and Buddhist Monks and show mercy to the slaves and merchants. Above all Dhamma was meant to show firm devotion to the king. He emphasised compassion towards animals and proper behaviour towards relatives. It was meant to strengthen the institution of the family and the existing social classes. Tolerance was the cardinal principle of the Dhamma.  

3.In Deccan and South India,almost all kings of different dynasties like Pallavas, Chalukyas, Western Ganga, Eastern Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas, Pandyas took the title of Dharma Maharaja. The basic aim of all the kings was to protect the society and to ensure that nobody is allowed to deviate from duties that had been assigned to them according to the varna or the station of his life. It was their duties to ensure purity in the social relation and to prevent admixture of varnas. For example, when Kalbharas, the peasants revolted in Deccan and South India against the privileges of Brahmins in the 7th century AD, the three important powers like Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas jointly crushed the peasant revolts and re-established Brahmanical social order.  

Conclusion 

1.According to P.V. Kane, in Rig Veda, the word Dharma was used 56 times. It means to maintain order, religious and moral duties or virtue, the right way of living.

2.There are four goals of life in Hinduism. These are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Thus, Dharma is the basic foundation of life.

3.In Buddhism Dharma or Dhamma is basically the teachings of the Buddha. Similarly, in Jainism, Dharma refers to the teachings of the Tirthankaras. In Sikhism, Dharma refers to the path of righteousness, proper religious practices and performing moral duties. 

4.Thus,  Dharma has wider connotations in Hindu religion and philosophy. It is distinct from various religions of the world. It talks about the holding of social orders and realities of life. It does not talk about supernatural beings like various religions of  the world like Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or Jainism or others.  

Voting behaviour of different castes in 2024 general elections of India

 Introduction

1.Ours is a caste ridden society. Castes play an important role in shaping the voting behaviour of the people. In normal times, it is caste which makes or breaks the government. But in abnormal situations, people vote overriding the primordial loyalties like castes, communities and religion. 

2.In 2024 General Election for the Lok Sabha, a general trend is visible across the country. The upper castes voted overwhelmingly for NDA led by BJP while Muslims and Dalits by and large voted for Congress and India alliance. 

3.In Karnataka, 22% upper caste voted for Congress and 71% for NDA. The dominant Vokalinga votes were split between NDA and Congress, 56% and 44% respectively. 

4.The 76% of  the dominant Lingayat voted for NDA, while only 20% voted for Congress. 2/3rd (66%) dalits voted for Congress and 1/3rd (33%) for NDA. 44% Adivasi voted for Congress, 56% for NDA. 92% Muslims voted for Congress and only 8% for NDA.  Thus, the Congress got only 9 seats and NDA 19 seats out of the total 28 seats in Karnataka. 

5.In Haryana, Congress and BJP got 5 seats each out of the total 10 seats. 

6.The dominant Jat community voted overwhelmingly for Congress (64%) and only 27% for BJP. The share of the Upper caste was 66% for BJP and 30% for Congress. The votes of OBC were split between Congress and BJP, 51% and 44% respectively. Congress made a dent into the OBC votes of BJP. 68% scheduled caste voted for Congress and only 24% voted for BJP. 

7.In Rajasthan,Out of total 25 seats,  the BJP won 14 seats and the Congress won eight seats. The Communist Party of India (Marxist), the Rashtriya Loktantrik Party and the Bharat Adivasi Party each won one seat.

8.The 26% upper caste voted for Congress led India alliance and 65% voted for BJP. 

9.The 39 % OBC voted for India alliance and 59% for BJP, 46% Dalits voted for Congress and 37% voted for BJP. 40% Adivasis voted India Alliance and 46% Adivasis voted for BJP. 68% Muslims voted for Congress and only 14% voted for BJP. From the above data it is clear that OBC votes, Dalit votes and adivasi votes split between the Congress led India alliance and BJP. While the upper caste Hindus voted overwhelmingly for BJP, the Muslims voted for the India alliance. 

10.In Delhi, 71% upper caste, 58% OBC and 49% Dalit voted for BJP. While only 14% upper caste, 19% OBC, 20% Dalit and 34% Muslims voted for Congress. 12% upper caste, 20% OBC, 28% dalit, 49 % Muslims. Thus, there was a clear divide. While the upper castes and obc voted overwhelmingly for BJP, the dalit vote was split between the India alliance and the BJP in equal measures. As usual , 83% Muslims voted for the India alliance. People were satisfied with the performance of the central government. The arrest of Kejriwal did not cut ice with the voters. That’s why, the BJP swept all the seven seats.

11. In Chhattisgarh, BJP cornered 10 out of 11 seats in the 2024 election. This was because 74% upper castes, 56% OBCs and 59% Dalits and 41% Adivasis voted for BJP. 

12. In Gujarat, 71% upper caste, 80% Patidar, 58% Kshatriya, 68% OBC, 54% Dalits, 49% Adivasi and 29% Muslims voted for BJP. The Congress got 25% votes of upper castes, 6% votes of Patidar, 39%votes of Kshatriya, 23% vote of OBC, 46% votes of Dalits, 41% votes of Adivasi and 59% votes of Muslims. Thus, votes of dalits and adivasi more or less vertically divided between Congress and BJP while Muslim voted for congress overwhelmingly, upper caste Patidar, Kshatriya and OBCs voted overwhelmingly for BJP. That’s why, BJP cornered 25 out of 26 seats in Gujarat. 

13.In Punjab also, 56% upper caste Hindus voted for BJP. Every third urban voter voted for the BJP. Sikh OBCs were mainly divided between the Congress and the AAP. The BJP did not open its account in Punjab. Out of the 13 seats, Congress won 7 seats, AAP 3 seats, SAD 1 seat and Independents 2 seats. 

14.In Uttar Pradesh, Upper Castes 16% voted for the India alliance and 79% for the NDA. 82% Yadav voted for India and 15% for NDA. 61% Kurmi Koiri voted for NDA and 34% INDIA alliance. 59% OBCs voted for NDA and 34% for INDIA. 25% Jatav voted for India, 24% for NDA and 44% for BSP. Non Jatav Dalits overwhelmingly supported the INDIA alliance (56%) while 92% Muslims voted for the INDIA alliance.  Thus, 13% Jatavs of UP who were the staunch supporters of BSP, got split. Although half of the Jatavs still remained with BSP, half of them split between NDA and India.  Unemployment, inflation, paper leaks were important factors that made a dent into the BJP votes. So out of 80 seats Samajwadi Party got 37 seats while Congress got 6 seats. 

15.In Bihar, out of 40 seats NDA got 30 seats. India alliance got 9 seats (RJD 4, Congress 3, CPI ML 2) Independent 1. 53% Upper caste, 67 % Koiri + Kurmi, 26% Yadav, 54% other OBC, 65 % Dusadh/ Pasi, 58 % other scheduled caste and 12% Muslims voted for NDA. While 10 %  upper caste, 19% Koeri and Kurmi, 73% Yadavs, 14% other OBC, 35 % Dusadh/ Pasi, 42% other scheduled castes and 87% Muslims voted for INDIA Alliance. Thus, other OBC, Dusadh/Pasi, Koeri and Kurmi tilted in favour of the NDA alliance. 

16.In Telangana, out of 17 seats both the Congress and the BJP won 8 seats each and was won by Asaduddin Owasi. 53% upper castes, 42% OBC, 24% scheduled castes , 29% scheduled tribes, 4% Muslims voted for BJP. While 29% upper caste, 38% OBC, 45% scheduled caste, 58 % scheduled tribes, 33 % Muslims voted for Congress. The vote share of the BRS dropped to 17% in the Lok Sabha election from 38% in the assembly election in the last year. There has been a massive shift in OBC and upper caste votes to the BJP. This vote shift has come from the BRS. Thus it was a major setback for the Congress Party which won a thumping majority in the recently held assembly election. 

17.In Madhya Pradesh, all 29 seats were cornered by BJP. And completely decimated Congress. 72% of the upper caste, 63% upper OBCs, 71% lower OBCs, 53% Dalits and 70% Adivasis voted for BJP. Thus the vote share of BJP went up to 59% while the Congress got only 32% votes. Poor organisational structure, lack of effective leadership and clear cut ideology eroded the vote percentage of Congress Party in Madhya Pradesh. 

18. In Andhra Pradesh, the formidable alliance of Telugu Desam, Jana Sena of Pawan Kalyan and BJP decimated the YSR Congress Party led by Jagan Mohan Reddy.  The NDA Alliance swept the assembly election and YSR CP was reduced to only 11 seats in state assembly of 175 seats and 4 seats in Lok Sabha (25 seats) about 55% upper castes, 62% Reddy, 32% Kamma, 44% Golla and Kuruma, 23.8% Goud, 53.5% Muslims, 55.6% Christians, 47.7% Mala voted for YSR Congress Party. While the NDA Alliance got more than 60% vote share of Goud, Kammas and Kapus, More than 50% vote share of OBCs, Madigas and Malas. More than half of the voters below 25 years and 2/3rd of the voters between 26 and 35 age group voted overwhelmingly for INDIA Alliance. 

Conclusion

1.In 2024 General election, BJP got 240 seats and along with NDA partners it reached 293. Congress got 99 seats and along with INDIA Alliance, it crossed 234 seats. In the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh , Uttarakhand , Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, it got dismal performance. Even in the Congress ruled states of Karnataka and Telangana, it did not show effective strength. 

2.BJP did not get a full majority on its own because it did not perform well in the states of UP and Maharashtra. The Congress did well in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra capturing 13 seats and INDIA alliance got 30 seats, 17 seats by NDA and 1 seat by Independent.  

3.2024 general election showed upper castes and OBCs other than Yadavs rallied behind NDA while Muslims and Dalits supported Congress and INDIA Alliance. 

4.Wherever, there was a split of votes dalit and adivasi, NDA swept the poll. INDIA Alliance must focus upon dalits, adivasis, OBCs and Muslims in order to get electoral advantage in the next election. Since the upper caste is by and large solidly behind the BJP and NDA alliance in northern India and a major chunk of OBCs other than Yadavs support NDA alliance, it would be the Prime Focus of India alliance to make dent into the OBC votes. If it wants to capture power at the centre and states in northern India. 

Social changes in ancient India

 Introduction

1.Ancient Indian society was not a static society. It underwent social changes in different phases.

2.The British historians deliberately pointed out that Indian society never witnessed any change in its long history of 3000 years. Charles Metcalf said that when nothing seemed to last, these village communities in India lasted forever.

Indus Valley Civilisation

It was a bronze age culture. Town planning and drainage system was excellent. Trade and commerce thrived. But we have not deciphered their script. So, we cannot confidently describe their social organisation. However, the excavations at different sites indicate that the citadel was the locality where the ruling class lived. The middle settlement was meant for bureaucrats and merchants, the lower parts of the town was meant for common people. Temples have not been found in the Indus civilization, as we find in the Babylonian civilization.  Thus, scholars are of the view that a class of merchants ruled over the area in Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. After the decline of Indus Civilisation, around 1700 BC, India did not witness urban centres for the next 1000 years. It was only around 600 BC that urban centres sprang up in north India.   

Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)

1.Kinship was the basis of the social structure.

2.They were pastoral, moving from one place to another along with their cows and cattle. 

3.The concept of territory did not evolve because there is no mention of the term Janpada in the Rig Veda.

4.Family was a very large joint unit. It was a patriarchal family headed by the father.

5.Women could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands.

6.The institution of marriage was established but there was also the practice of widow remarriage and levirate (niyog).

7.Gradually the tribal society was divided into three occupational groups. They were warriors, priests and common people. The fourth division called Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period. 

8.Women were employed for domestic purposes. Slaves were not directly used in agriculture or other productive activities.

9.Differentiation based on occupation was not very sharp. 

Later Vedic Period (1000 BC - 600 BC)

1.Later Vedic Society came to be divided into the four varnas. They were Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. 

2.Brahmin conducts rituals and sacrifices for their clients and kings. They prayed for the success of their patron in war and in return the king pledged  to support them. Both Brahmin and Kshatriya fought for supremacy but when they had to deal with Vaishyas and Shudras, they set aside their differences and crushed the disobedience or revolt of the Vaishya or Shudras.

3.Kshatriyas were assigned the duties to protect the people. During this period, the king had to depend upon the voluntary gift of the people called Bali. Since the economy was not a surplus one, the king could not collect taxes on a regular basis.  

4.Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Towards the end of the later Vedic period, they began to do trade and commerce. 

5.All the three upper varnas were called dwija (twice born) because they had to undergo upnayan or investiture ceremony with the sacred thread. The fourth Varna called Shudras were deprived of sacred thread ceremony and recitation of gayatri mantra. Similarly, women were also denied the recital of gayatri mantra and upnayan ceremony. 

6.Among the Shudras, Rathakar or chariot makers were given higher status because in those days battles were fought by chariots drawn by horses. This practice continued till the Mauryan period.

7.The power of the father increased who could disinherit his son. The right of primogeniture was established. The position of women deteriorated. The institution of Gotra was established in the later vedic period. The people of the same gotra could not marry among themselves  so the strict rule of Gotra exogamy was enforced. 

8.Ashramas or four stages of life like Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa were not well established during this period. Sanyasa or ascetic life developed after the later vedic period during the age of Buddhas in 600 BC. 

Age of Buddha (600 BC - 320 BC)  

1.The social differentiation became very much pronounced. Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras were assigned well defined functions. Brahmanas demanded various privileges like exemption from taxation and punishment. The Kshatriyas ranked second in the varna hierarchy. They lived on the taxes collected from the peasants. Their main function was to fight and to govern the people. 

2.The vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and commerce. They had to bear the brunt of taxation collected by the king. 

3.The shudras were meant to serve the three higher varnas. They worked as domestic slaves, agricultural slaves, craftsmen and hired labourers. 

4.The society became very hierarchical. The higher the Varna, the more privileged the person was.

5.The vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices hampered the progress of new agriculture and therefore, the vaishyas very much detested the animal sacrifices and supremacy of Brahmanas.  Similarly, Kshatriyas protested very much against the various privileges enjoyed by Brahmanas. The scholars are of the view that the reaction of Kshatriyas against the Brahmin domination led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in north India. Both Mahavir and Gautam Budhha came from Kshatriya Varna. Buddhism gave the kshatriyas the highest place in the varna hierarchy above the Brahmanas. 

6.The rise of the Magadha empire at the cost of other Mahajanapadas in the sixth century  BC under the leadership of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru further strengthened the position of the Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. 

7. But in the republics like Vaishali and Shakyas, Brahamanas had no importance in governance.

8.The Indian legal and judicial system originated and developed during this period. Dharma Sutras define the duties of each of the four varnas. The civil and criminal laws came to be based upon varna division. All forms of disabilities were imposed upon shudras. Crimes committed against Brahamanas were severely punished but when Brahamanas committed crime they were given light punishment.

9. During this period, a theory was developed that Brahamanas were created from the mouth, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from thighs and Shudras from the feet  of the lord Brahma. During this period social stratification strengthened very much. Shudras were not allowed to dine with upper varnas. Inter-marriage among four varnas was prohibited. The shudras could not be appointed to the high post in the government. The civil and criminal punishment became very harsh. Tit for tat was the common method for the punishment.  

Mauryan Period (300 BC - 300 AD)

1.Kautilya advises the king to promulgate dharma because the king was the protector of dharma. This means that no varna should be allowed to deviate from their assigned duties. Nobody should encroach upon the four stages of life (Ashram).

2.The policy of Ashoka was very much resented by the Brahamanas because he prohibited killings of birds, animals and sacrifices. 

3.Ashoka appointed Rajukas and Dharma Mahamatras to govern the people on the basis of vyavhar samta (equality in criminal law) and danda samta (equality in civil law) for all varnas. The entire Dharma sutras compiled by Brahmanas were based upon varna discrimination. And so, the privileges enjoyed by Brahamanas were curtailed by the emperor Ashoka. Scholars are of the view that because of the Brahmanical reaction, Pushyamitra Shunga, a brahmin,  killed the last Mauryan king Brihdatta in the broad public view and established the Shunga dynasty. Later on, in the western deccan Satvahanas established their rule. They were brahmins.  They performed vedic sacrifices on the large scale and donated land grants to brahmanas.   

4.Since 200 BC onwards several invasions of India happened. The Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians, the Kushanas and the Indo-Sassanians entered into India and became an integral part of Indian society. They were Indianised. They had no separate ideology or religion and so they were assimilated in Indian society. They lost their identity. Since they had come as invaders, they were placed as Kshatriyas.

5.In the Deccan, Satavahanas established their rule and extended their kingdom to Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Originally they have been deccani tribes but they were brahamanised. They performed many ashwamedha yagya. The Satavahanas showed the traces of matrilineal social structure; it was customary for their king to be named after their mother like Gautamipurta or Vashishti Putra. This means that mothers, particularly the women, enjoyed higher status in the society. The queens exercised power and acted as regents in case of minor kings. However, the Satavahanas society was patriarchal and succession passed through the male members. 

6.The Satvahanas started giving tax free villages to Brahamanas and the Buddhist monks. The granted villages could not be intruded by police or other royal officers.  This led to the autonomous region within the kingdom. The feudatories became powerful and thus we see that society became graded. The king was at the top while the second grade was enjoyed by Mahabhoj, the big feudatories and the third grade by Senapati. 

Sangam age in the South (300 BC- 300 AD)

1.Three kingdoms of the Chola with its capital at Uraiyur, Pandya with its capital at Madurai and Chera with its capital at Muziris sprang up in the far south.

2.Brahmins enjoyed a powerful position in the Sangam kingdoms. Unlike the Brahmins of North India, they ate meat and drank wine. 

3.The rich peasants called Vellalas occupied civil and military offices in both the kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas. The ruling class had a matrimonial relationship with Vellalas. These Vellalas held the bulk of the Tamil land. The rich peasants did not plough themselves but employed the labourers to cultivate their lands. 

4.There was great social inequality. While the rich lived in the houses made of brick and mortar, the poor lived in thatched houses. 

5.Since the three Sangam aged kingdoms fought among themselves, the war booty was the main source of livelihood and the warrior class enjoyed special status in the Sangam society. 

Gupta Period (319 AD -550 AD )

1.Large scale land grants to Brahamanas made them the most powerful during the Gupta period. They claimed many privileges and amassed huge wealth.The practice of land grants to government officials in lieu of salaries further eroded the authority of the Gupta kings. This practice of land grants to brahmanas and government officials led to the rise of landlordism in northern India and devolution of the central authority.  

2.The proliferation of the caste into numerous subcastes occurred during this period because of the infiltration of the foreigners. The Huns came into India on a large scale in the second half of the fifth century AD. 

3.Many tribes were Brahamanised and brought into the fold of brahmanical order. The position of shudras improved during this period. They became agriculturists also, in addition to domestic slaves and servants and agricultural labourers.

4.The number of untouchables increased during this period on account of the prohibited marriage of the pratiloma marriage where the shudra groom married with the bride of higher varna like Brahmana, Kshatriya or and Vaishya. The untouchables lived outside the village.

5. Sati system became prevalent during this period and in patriarchal society women began to be treated as the item of the property and except stree dhan they were not allowed to inherit landed property of their parents. Widow remarriage and niyog were completely prohibited among higher varnas. But shudras could practise widow remarriage or niyog.

The period of Chalkuyas and Pallavas (300 AD - 700 AD)

1.The period saw the rise of Brahmanism in south India. However, Pallavas and Chalukyas fought against each other for supremacy for 200 years and ultimately destroyed themselves.

2.Society was dominated by the princes and priests. The king claimed the status of Brahmin. However, many of them were local clans. The priests got extensive land grants and so they became very much influential. Below the princes and priests were peasants who were shudras.   The king was ordained to protect dharma, which means that nobody was allowed to deviate from their assigned duties. Most of the kings adopted the title of dharma maharaja. This period saw extensive agrarian expansion in the peninsula. Because of the high taxation upon lower varnas and acute social inequality, Kalbharas revolted against the supremacy of Brahamanas. They captured Brahmadey villages. They defeated one by one the Chola, the Pandya and the Cherra kings. Their revolt could be quelled only by the joint efforts of Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pandyas kings. This shows that the large scale land grants to Brahmanas adversely affected the peasants. 

Conclusion 

1.Thus we see that the society in ancient India passed from several stages of evolution. From the food gathering society of the palaeolithic age , it was succeeded by food producing society of the neolithic and chalcolithic age.  Indus valley people developed an urban civilisation. 

2.During the Rig Vedic the society was tribal and pastoral. 

3.During the later Vedic period the society became agricultural and they practised subsistence farming.

4.During the post Vedic period the society was fully divided into four varnas of Brahamana, Khastriya, Vaishya and Shudras. The interaction among these varnas became less with the passage of time. Because of the introduction of iron in the agricultural activities in the Gangetic valley, the peasants could produce surplus and so, they were then in the position to pay taxes to the kings. This led to the rise of the Magadha empire.

5.During the Mauryan period, the Brahmanical reaction was witnessed against Ashoka's policy. During the Kushan period, so many castes and sub-castes proliferated because of the intrusion of large scale foreigners into India. 

6.In the Gupta period in north India and during the period of the Chalukya and the Pallavas of peninsular India, large scale land grants to Brahmanas and government officials eroded the central authority. The burden of the heavy taxation upon peasantry was very much resented by them and they revolted against the kingdoms of Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas.  And the revolt was so extensive that it could be quelled only by the joint efforts of all the kingdoms of the peninsula. Thus, we see the growth and development of landlordism in both north and south India since 5th century AD. This phenomenon weakened the central authority leading to the rise of so many kingdoms throughout India.