Achievements in Science and Technology in Ancient India

Why is it in the news?

1.The noted historian William Dalrymple wrote the “Golden Road : How Ancient India Transformed the World?”. The book was published earlier this year, which gives the complete idea as to how India was everything that happened in the ancient world right up to the early stages of the rise of Islam. 

2.According to him, India, not China, was at the heart of ancient commerce. It was the bristling maritime trade between India and the rest of the world which boosted international trade. That India was indeed a maritime power touching Egyptian ports to the West and Indonesia and the rest of SouthEast Asia to its East. The outcome of this association was the construction  of the largest Hindu Temple complex at Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist shrine in Indonesia. 

3. Through the ages scholars, kings, caliph, emperors across the world from China to Western and Central Asia admired India as the principal knowledge hub even after the advent of Islam. India’s rich mathematical and astronomical tradition continued to dazzle the world. The Chinese emperors gave shelter to Indian mathematicians, astronomers, and scholars in their courts. 

4.The Historian William Dalrymple, brought out how ancient India was as great and as dynamic civilisation as China was at a time when the west was hardly in reckoning. According to him, Indians made astonishing advances in science and technology in ancient India. 

Achievements in Science and Technology in ancient India

1.Ancient Indians made three important contributions. These are the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notational system was adopted by the Arab who spread it to the western world. The decimal system was borrowed by the Chinese from Buddhist missionaries. Similarly, Indians invented Algebra which was acquired by Arabs and spread to the western Europe. Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya further contributed in the development of Algebra and trigonometry. 

2. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the 2nd century BC. It was considered a separate numeral. The Arabs learnt the use of zero and then spread it to Europe. 

3. Aryabhatt calculated the positions of the planets. He discovered the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses. He measured the circumference of the Earth. He said that the Earth rotates around the Sun rather than vice-versa. He wrote Aryabhatiya. 

4. In the book Brihat Samhita, Varahmihir said that the Moon rotated around the Earth and Earth rotated around the Sun. 

5. In the field of medicine, Sushruta and Charak were prominent surgeons and physicians respectively. While Sushruta in his book Sushruta Samhita gives detailed description about the method of operating cataract, stoned diseases and many implements to be used for surgery, the Charak Samhita discusses various types of diseases and prescribes medicines for their cure. 

6. The drainage system and town planning adopted by the Harappans clearly show that they had knowledge of measurement and geometry. Sulba Sutras provides early examples of geometry. It provides precise methods to construct altars. Aryabhatt formulated a method for calculating the area of a triangle which led to the origin of trigonometry. The ancient Indians developed temple building engineering. The marvellous Ellora temples and Kailashnath temple which have been carved out from the single rock is an example of extraordinary engineering feat. 

7. The Lokayat philosophy provided by the Charvak argued that what is not experienced by man through his sensory organ does not really exist. Thus, he repudiated the existence of god. Similarly, philosophy of Sankhya was propounded by Kapil Muni. According to him, the soul can get liberation only through real knowledge which can be acquired through perception, inference and hearing. 

8. Indians developed the art of dyeing, the lasting colour is found in the paintings of Ajanta. 

9.Indians developed great expertise in the art of making steel. The iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) did not rust even after the lapse of 1600 years. 

10.Kanad Rishi devises the atomic theory. He speculated about the existence of small indestructible particles much like an atom. He further held that atoms of the same substance combined with each other in a specific and synchronous manner  produced dviyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (Triatomic molecules). 

11. India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process. This led to the making of bronze alloy by the mixing of tin with zinc. 

Decline of Science and Technology in India 

The science and technology declined after the onset of Muslim rule in India. The Sultanate period and thereafter, the Mughal period saw the growth of orthodox elements in the society. The Muslim religious leaders like Ulema, Mullah and Maulavi increased religiosity in the society. Among Hindus, the Bhakti movement took its root. The religious leaders like Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, Vallabhacharya, Nanak, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai spread the Bhakti cult in India. Thus, the ecosystem of science and technology was relegated to the background. Religious orthodoxy took precedence over logic and scientific temper. Moreover, the progressive and learned Brahamanas were denied privileges like land grants during the Muslim rule and so their creativity was stifled. The status of education further deteriorated during the period. And thus, India lagged behind in science and technology in the mediaeval period.  It was only after the second half of the British rule that science and scientific studies were given importance. Thus, the scientists like J C Bose, C V Raman, Homi Jehangir Bhabha,  Srinivasa Ramanujan, Vikram Sarabhai, Satyendra Nath Bose and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar were produced in India who made marks in the field of science and technology. 

Is the Indian Constitution a federal structure ?

 Why is it in the news?

Hon’ble Shri DY Chandrachud, the Chief Justice of India, while delivering inaugural Lok Satta lecture in Mumbai on 26th October, said “States and union are both creatures of the constitution. They must act in deference to their legislative boundaries in finding meaningful solutions to modern day problems. Our ability to address these challenges is the litmus test for our imperfect federalism and the framers’ faith in it. If federalism in the years gone by was about adjusting to political realities in terms of legislative powers, in the years to come should be evaluated based on its ability to foster democracy and constitutional ideals of equality, liberty, dignity and fraternity. “

Introduction

The Indian Constitution does not use the word federation. Instead, it uses the term union. Article 1 says that India, that is , Bharat shall be a union of states. It means that unlike federation, the central government is not the outcome of agreement among federating units. Secondly,  the federating units have no right to secede from the central government. However, the Indian constitution postulates a federation with a centralising tendency. In the Bommai case (1994), the Supreme Court laid down that the constitution of India is federal and federalism is its basic feature. The court held that the states have independent constitutional existence. They are not subordinates or agents of the centre. Within the sphere allotted to them, states are supreme. 

What is Federalism ?

1.Federalism pre-supposes a dual government where both central and the state governments derive their power from the constitution. The power is divided between the national and state governments with clear boundaries. Secondly, it has a written constitution where both central and state governments have defined jurisdictions.  An independent judiciary which acts as the guardian of the constitution. Bicameral legislature is established whereby the second chamber represents the interests of the states. Federalism pre-supposes a rigid constitution so that no constitutional amendment can be made by ordinary legislation. In a federal structure, supremacy of the constitution is of paramount importance and thus, whenever Parliament or State legislature exceeds its power or does not conform to the provisions of the constitution, the laws passed by the Parliament or state assemblies are struck down. 

2.On the contrary, in a unitary government, all powers are vested in the central government. Moreover, the central government creates regional governments like in the UK. 

Federal features of the Indian Constitution

1.The constitution of India establishes a dual polity consisting of the union and state governments. At present, there are 28 states. They have been assigned powers separately. They are not subordinate to the Union Government. While, the Union Government deals with foreign, defence, currency, communication and so on the state governments have been bestowed with to work for regional interests like public order, agriculture, health, local self government, police etc. 

2. The Seventh Schedule of the constitution of India consists of three lists - The Union List comprising 100 subjects, the State List comprising 59 subjects and the Concurrent List comprising 52 subjects. Both the central and state governments can make laws on the subjects included in the concurrent list. But in case of any conflict, the laws made by the Parliament would supersede the laws made by state assemblies under concurrent lists. However, unlike the US constitution, the residuary subjects are vested in the central government. 

3.Our constitution clearly gives its supremacy. Thus, in case the Parliament or State Legislature exceeds its powers or its limitations, the laws passed by the legislature or parliament are declared null and void by the Supreme Court under judicial review. 

4. Ours is a written constitution. The constitution was drafted and prepared by the constituent assembly represented by 299 members from the nook and corner of the country. It contains 470 articles and 12 schedules. The constitution has clearly discussed and demarcated  the structures and functions of the central, state and local governments. 

5.Our constitution is a mixture of flexibility and rigidity. While some of the provisions of the constitution can be amended by both Houses of the Parliament with special majority, the federal structure like the central state relations, judiciary, inter-state commerce can only be amended by both Houses of Parliament and  the concurrence of half of the state legislature by the simple majority. 

6. Our constitution has made provisions for an independent judiciary by securing the tenures of judges, fixed conditions of service and independence from the executive. It has also been assigned the task to settle the disputes between the union and the state governments or between state governments. 

7. Our constitution lays down a bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper House (Rajya Sabha) and a Lower House (Lok Sabha). While the Lower House is elected on the basis of universal suffrage, the Upper House is represented by states to protect their interests.  

8.The judicial intervention by the Supreme Court further strengthened the federal features of our constitution. For example, the Supreme Court held that a bill passed by the state legislature and presented before the Governor for his assent, cannot withhold the bill indefinitely. Rather a Governor can withhold with the assent of the bill only to send it for reconsideration, thereby circumscribing the discretionary power of the Governor.   Similarly, in the Bommai case (1994), the Supreme Court held that the test of the majority can only be held at the floor of the House, thereby, limiting the misuse of article 356 by the Governor for the imposition of  the President’s Rule in the state. 

9. Assertion of autonomy by states, demand for more financial grants by the states from the divisible pool of the central proceeds, disputes between states over the sharing of river water, territorial disputes between different states, creation of new states and finally emergence of regional parties to reduce regional disparities and for balanced regional development are some of the important federal trends that are being reflected in the working of the constitution of India for the last 75 years. 

Centralising features of the constitution of India  

There are certain centralising features which contrast the Indian constitution from the US constitution in so far as  the federal features are concerned. These are 

• Emergency Provisions under articles 352, 356 and 360

• Integrated judiciary 

• All India Services 

• Integrated audit system

• Integrated election commission

• Appointment/ Powers and Functions of Governor

• Parliament's authority even in the matters relating to the state list

• Single citizenship 

• Single constitution

• No equality of state representation in the Rajya Sabha

• More powers to the union government than state governments 

• The President enjoys absolute veto over state bills 

Conclusion

1. The Indian constitution postulates cooperative federalism where the union and state governments work together to iron out the differences that arise in governance to achieve the common goal of development. 

2. The states are in no way dependent upon the centre for the legislative or the executive authority. Both the centre and the state derive their power from the constitution itself. 

3.However, to strengthen the unity and integrity of India, certain exceptional provisions were made to face the challenges in abnormal/ exceptional situations so that in case of emergencies , India acts as a single powerful body. That’s why provisions of emergency, flexibility in the amendment of the constitution and a strong central government have been made.